Please Contact SYMLOG if you wish to obtain a copy of the blibliography.

Adhami, S. (1998).
Manager Value-orientations in Iranian State-run and Private Sectors
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, United States International University.

SYMLOG (Farsi language translation) was used to measure particular value-orientations of Iranian managers in private and State-run enterprises. Findings are reported on the organizational and individual level and for actual and optimal conditions.

Ardelt-Gattinger, E., Lechner, H., & Schlögl, W. (Eds.). (1998).

Gruppendynamik, Anspruch und Wirklichkeit der Arbeit in Gruppen. Göttingen: Verlag für angewandte Psychologie.

Bachman, W. (1983).
A SYMLOG analysis of an Israeli-Palestinian problem solving workshop.
Unpublished paper, Psychology and Social Relations, Harvard University. ­

An exploratory case study of a problem solving workshop on issues of international conflict conducted by H. Kelman, with S. Cohen and L. Doob. Participants were four Israeli and four Palestinian academics, none in any official or representative status. Nine formal sessions (about 15 hours) were observed by the author using the full SYMLOG act by act interaction scoring. There were some interesting findings of unknown generality. Author suggests that the image analysis could be made more useful by identifying the salient images most relevant to the conflict and classifying value statements with regard to these specifically. Image scores aggregated over all levels and issues, simply giving pro and con locations in the space were not sufficiently informative.

Bachman, W. (1988).
Nice guys finish first: A SYMLOG analysis of U.S. Naval Commands.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds). The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 133-153. New York: Praeger.

A statistical study was conducted of differences between U.S. naval units classified by the Navy as superior and average. Officers and personnel of all ranks rated the behavior of each other. No essential differences were found between air, surface ship, and submarine commands, but there were clear and striking differences between superior and average units, located mainly in the behavior of the commanding and executive officers. Many traits of authoritarian behavior were attributed to these officers in average commands, but this was not true for the top officers of superior commands who were rated as more democratic.

Backes, C. (1983).
"Konstruktives" Negativ Verhalten. Zum Problem der sozialen Erwuenschtheit in der Verhaltensbeschreibung.
Diplomarbeit, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

Explores the potential value of N behaviors (those classified in one of the Unfriendly categories) in academic self-analytic groups using SYMLOG observations and feedback.

Baker, H. G., & Berry, E. M. (in press).
Teamwork Value Orientation of Mexican Managers and Entrepreneurs.
In A. P. Hare (Ed.). Analysis of social interaction systems.
New York: University Press of America.

Baker, H. G., & Kecharananta, N. (in press).
Value Orientations toward Teamwork Effectiveness: A Thai Norm.
In A. P. Hare (Ed.). Analysis of social interaction systems.
New York: University Press of America.

Baker, H. G., & Koenigs, R. J. (in press).
Integrating Work Values into the Mix for Assessment Centers.
In A. P. Hare (Ed.). Analysis of social interaction systems.
New York: University Press of America.

Balck, F., Jantschek, G., & Wietersheim, J. V. (1991).
Diagnostics with families: A comparison of Faces II and SYMLOG.
Small Group Research 22 (1): 115-123.

Oldon and Porter's instrument, Faces II, is compared with SYMLOG behavior ratings. Both instruments provide useful information regarding the functioning of the family, but there is almost no overlap in the information.

Bales, R. F. (1941).
The Concept "Situation" as a Sociological Tool.
Unpublished Master of Science dissertation, University of Oregon.

After reviewing the social science literature, Bales concluded that the concept "situation" implied both the actor and the environment, the value and meaning elements as well as the external conditions. The distinctions often made between ends and means anticipate the SYMLOG Forward direction, and that between the SYMLOG Positive and Negative directions is fundamental to the very concept of "value" and to the concept of success or frustration of instrumental behavior. The "situation" is in effect a list of elements that must be specified for a complete social psychological study aimed at generalization and prediction. This early theoretical analysis became the basis for a program of research and theorizing that resulted, some forty years later, in the SYMLOG system, and the conception of "multiple level, social interaction field theory".

Bales, R. F. (1950).
Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups.
Cambridge, MA: Addison Wesley. Reprinted 1976, University of Chicago Press.

The 12 categories for the analysis of the process of social interaction in small groups introduced in this volume became the most widely used observational system in social psychology prior to the publication of SYMLOG.

The categories are:

1. shows solidarity,
2. shows tension release,
3. shows agreement,
4. gives suggestion,
5. gives opinion,
6. gives information,
7. asks for information,
8. asks for opinion,
9. asks for suggestion,
10. shows disagreement,
11. shows tension, and
12. shows antagonism.

Bales, R. F. (1968).
Interaction process analysis.
In D. L. Sills (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Volume 7 (pp. 465-471).
New York: Macmillan and Free Press.

Based on a sample of 21 studies that had used the 12 Interaction Process Analysis categories, a table is provided indicating the range of the lowest and highest rates for each category of the interaction profiles. A key for the interpretation of high and low rates on the interaction profile for interaction initiated and interaction received is presented to derive indicators of an individual's position in the three dimensional behavior space: Dominant­Submissive, Friendly­Unfriendly, and Instrumentally (Task) Controlled­Emotionally expressive. Bales later advises that such a key seems feasible, but that the one offered should receive validation before serious use.

Bales. R. F. (1970).
Personality and interpersonal behavior.
New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

The three dimensional social­psychological space that forms the theoretical perspective for SYMLOG analysis is introduced in this volume. The three dimensions are: Upward­Downward (dominant vs. submissive), Positive­Negative (friendly vs. unfriendly), and Forward­Backward (instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive). By dividing each dimension into thirds, 27 classes of location are generated, of which 26 can be considered directions or vectors of interpersonal behavior. Descriptions of the behavior and value statements that can be expected from persons occupying each of these 26 positions are given that provide a detailed set of hypotheses as to what may be observed in future groups. Three rating forms, A, B, and C, of 26 items each are distilled from the correlations in the large factor study of Couch and Bales on which the book is based, which may be used to provide an indication of an individual's position in the space.

Bales, R. F. (1973).
Communication in small groups.
In G. A. Miller (Ed), Communication, language and meaning, Psychological Perspectives, pp. 208-218. New York: Basic Books.

A brief non­technical report of some of the main generalizations about personality and group dynamics contained in the author's book, Personality and interpersonal behavior, for broadcast on the radio program Voice of America.

Bales, R. F. (1974).
The conceptualization of family interaction.
Paper presented at meetings of American Sociological Association, Montreal, Canada.

The concepts of "instrumental" and "expressive" leadership as used by Zelditch in his cross­cultural analysis of the roles of the father and mother in the nuclear family are reanalyzed in terms of the three SYMLOG dimensions. For most of the cultures studied the father tends to be dominant, unfriendly, and controlling vis­a­vis the children, while the mother is dominant and friendly vis­a­vis the children, and occasionally counter­to­ control on behalf of the children vis­a­vis the father, who is the representative of societal norms. In this paper Bales criticizes the sociological "functional" approach he had earlier used and argues that it should be replaced by perceptions and evaluations made by group members, which can be studied empirically (as in SYMLOG ratings).

Bales, R. F. (1976).
Four frameworks for the study of social interaction.
In Symposium on Interaction in Laboratory and Field Settings. Small Group Behavior 7 (1): 3­6.

Includes a discussion by Bales of the four papers: a study of group communication process among college students, a developmental analysis of social interaction, an analysis of environmental impact on interaction, and a methodological discussion of ways of studying interaction.

Bales, R. F. (1980).
SYMLOG case study kit: with instructions for a group self study.
New York: Free Press.

The kit gives a brief summary of the concepts and techniques presented in Bales and Cohen's SYMLOG (1979). All the forms necessary to undertake a group self-study are included. The forms are perforated for easy removal from the kit. At the time the kit was published ratings were made primarily in terms of behavioral indicators, although a value form is included in the kit. By 1984 Bales and his colleagues were using measures of value positions for practical work in organizational settings, since value descriptors are appropriate for ratings, not only of individual group members, but also or sub­groups, groups as a whole, and images of desired goals and future states important in attempts to bring about change. The value forms used in organizational settings are available from the SYMLOG Consulting Group.

Bales, R. F. (1981).
SYMLOG consultant's handbook.
The SYMLOG Training Institute, 61 Scotch Pine Rd., Weston, MA 02193.

A detailed plan for a consulting organization using SYMLOG, and a model for a series of interventions using an A­B­A­B design for testing whether the intervention series produces significant results. Includes discussion of rationale, measuring instruments, specification of division of labor and responsibilities within the consultants' organization, and methods of working with members of the client group in individual conferences. The plans for a consulting organization were part of the background for the formation of the SYMLOG Consulting Group, by R. Koenigs and M. Cowen. The functions of the SYMLOG Training Institute have been taken over by this group.

Bales, R. F. (1983).
SYMLOG: A practical approach to the study of groups.
In H. H. Blumberg & A. P. Hare & V. Kent & M. Davies (Eds.)

Small groups and social interaction (Kurzfassung des SYMLOG-Ansatzes) (Vol. 2, pp. 499-523). New York: Wiley.

Bales, R. F. (1983a).
Hints for building teamwork.
SYMLOG Consulting Group, 18580 Polvera Dr., San Diego, CA 92128.

A 12­page booklet containing illustrative field diagrams comparing a team with optimum organization, and a badly disorganized conflict-ridden team. Suggestions for composing or developing an optimum team are given in 17 concise and rationalized hints. Suggestions for dealing with specific group problems are given in 11 hints. For the use of consultants and clients in workshops and interventions.

Bales, R. F. (1983b).
How to read a SYMLOG bargraph.
SYMLOG Consulting Group, 18580 Polvera Drive, San Diego, CA 92128.

A 9­page booklet containing an example of a bargraph of the average ratings attributed by all members of a group to all members, shown against a normative profile of the ratings believed, on the basis of research, to be most Effective in promoting teamwork. The text indicates the meaning of the "final type" as the global location of the image of the individual or group on the Field Diagram, this "type" as the key to locating a verbal description of the person on the "Key to Individual and Organizational Values", the source and rationale of the normative profile, a classification of the values and behavior which (1) usually make for effective teamwork, (2) those which may be necessary sometimes, but dangerous, and (3) those which almost always interfere with teamwork; finally, a summary of results that may be expected from discussion of the bargraph used as feedback. For use in consulting.

Bales, R. F. (1983c).
How to read a SYMLOG field diagram.
SYMLOG Consulting Group, 18580 Polvera Drive, San Diego, CA 92128.

A 15­page booklet containing examples of field diagrams, with explanation of the three dimensions, representation of images on the Field Diagram, the Overlay Inscription, the Line of Polarization, the WISH image, the Reference Subgroup, the Opposition Subgroup, Polarization of Sub Groups, Isolates, Swing Voters, Scapegoats, Mediators, the Leader­Mediator, and a brief rationale of intervention for changing the level of performance in a team. For the use of consultants and clients in workshops and interventions.

Bales, R. F. (1983d).
The SYMLOG key to Individual and Organizational Values.
SYMLOG Consulting Group, 18580 Polvera Dr., San Diego, CA 92128.

An 11­page booklet containing a brief description of the three major dimensions of polarization in the SYMLOG space, the six summary vectors, the items used to measure value attributions, and a 10­line description of each of the 26 Value Types, for the use of consultants and clients in workshops and interventions.

Bales, R. F. (1983e).
SYMLOG: A practical approach to the study of groups.
In H. H. Blumberg, A.P. Hare, V. Kent, & M. Davies (Eds). Small groups and social interaction, Vol. 2, pp. 499-523. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

A summary of SYMLOG adapted from Bales and Cohen (1979) including field theory, the three dimensional space, the behavior rating form, and the method of direct observation.

Bales, R. F. (1984a).
Texts for "THE BALES REPORT to an Individual."
SYMLOG Consulting Group, 18580 Polvera Dr., San Diego, CA 92128.

Counterpart to the report to the Group as a whole, but based on the average of all ratings received by a specific member, and addressed specifically to him or her, with some interpretation as to possible reasons for ratings received, and occasional suggestions as to ways of improving cooperation toward more effective teamwork, if that is desired. For use in coaching or counseling by a trained consultant in a program of education or training.

Bales, R. F. (1984b).
Texts for "THE BALES REPORT to Your Group."
SYMLOG Consulting Group, 18580 Polvera Dr., San Diego, CA 92128.

A customized computer­produced analysis of the SYMLOG value ratings members of an actual group have made of each other. The report is usually about ten pages long, is written in nontechnical language, suitable for use by groups in business and other organizational settings. It provides a trained consultant with a finished feedback report for group discussion in a program of intervention or training. Based on the average of all ratings received by group members on each of 26 value vectors, compared to empirically based norms associated with effective teamwork. The report contains a bargraph showing this comparison.

Bales, R. F. (1984c).
Texts for "YOURVIEW," an interactive computer program.
SYMLOG Consulting Group, 18580 Polvera Dr., San Diego, CA 92128.

The program enables a single rater using a portable computer with graphics to enter ratings on an actual team, to receive a tutorial on basic features of the SYMLOG system, to view field diagrams on the monitor and read interpretive descriptions of the group members he has rated. For demonstration and educational use. Also useful for case analysis of idealized or hypothetical groups.

Bales, R. F. ( 1984d).
The integration of social psychology.
Social Psychology Quarterly 47 (1): 98­101.

Response to presentation of the Cooley­Mead Award to the author by the Social Psychology Section of the American Sociological Association, August 1983. Sets forth some of the historical beginnings of the author's theoretical development and important turning points leading toward the methodological position represented by SYMLOG, which the author believes is the basic framework for the integration of social psychology.

Bales, R. F. (1985).
The new field theory in social psychology.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (1): 1­18.

It is contended that psychologists have repeatedly discovered, and lost sight of, various parts and levels of a global factor space defined by three bi­polar dimensions of behavior: Dominant­submissive, Friendly­unfriendly, and Instrumentally controlled­emotionally expressive. As examples, the spaces derived by Wish for the analysis of interpersonal relationships, Mehrabian for descriptions of emotion, Wundt for descriptions of feelings, Osgood for the analysis of semantic connotations of concepts, McClelland for the analysis of motivational needs, and Eysenck for coding statements of social attitudes and ideology are compared with the SYMLOG space.

Bales, R. F. (1988a).
A new overview of the SYMLOG system: Measuring and changing behavior in groups.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 319-344. New York: Praeger.

This overview of the SYMLOG system is also published as a separate pamphlet by the SYMLOG Consulting Group. Included is a description of the Field Diagram and Overlay, the Bargraph, and the physical space model.

Bales, R. F. (1988b).
Preface: SYMLOG -- The present state of applications.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. xiii-xxi. New York: Praeger.

Bales provides and overview of the applications of SYMLOG theory and method in self-analytic groups, training consultants and practitioners, classroom management, business schools, social work, group therapy, family therapy, individual therapy, international relations, attitude measurement, leadership, team building and organizational development.

Bales, R. F. (1999).
Social Interaction Sytems: Theory and measurement.
London: Transaction Publishers.

Bales, R. F., & Cohen, S. P., with the assistance of S. A. Williamson. (1979).
SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups.
New York: Free Press.
(German translation by J. F. Schneider & P. Orlik, 1982, SYMLOG: Ein System fuer die mehrstufige Beobachtung von Gruppen, Stuttgart: Klett­Cotta.)

The basic text for the new field theory. Provides a detailed description of the three-dimensional space (Upward­downward, Positive­Negative, and Forward­Backward) at a number of different levels (non­verbal behavior, overt intended behavior, pro and con value statements concerning images of self, other, group, situation, society, and fantasy). Methods of measurement include act­by­act observation of interpersonal behavior and content of communication, as well as simpler methods of retrospective ratings that can be made by group members or observers without special training. Details of the reliability and validity of the methods and directions for their use are given in a series of appendices. The results of these measurements are translated into three­dimensional "field diagrams," portraying the relationships among group members. A set of heuristic hypotheses is provided to raise questions about the extent to which the group is unified or polarized and other aspects of interaction and group dynamics. A detailed procedural syllabus for an academic self­analytic group is included, and a detailed case study of one group.

Bales, R. F., & Couch, S. A. (1969).
The Value Profile: A factor analytic study of value statements.
Sociological Inquiry, 39 (1): 3­17.

Delayed publication of the factor analysis which later became the basis of the formulation of the value statement level and the 26 value types of the SYMLOG space. Reprinted in Bales's 1970 book, Personality and interpersonal behavior. The interest in issues of value conflict arose out of the observation of polarized conflicts in laboratory groups discussing cases of value dilemmas.

Bales, R. F., & Hare, A. P. (1988).
Annotated bibliography of research on SYMLOG.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 351-384. New York: Praeger.

An extensive description of research using the SYMLOG theory and methods covers the period from 1960 through 1985. Because the present version of SYMLOG was only introduced in 1979, unpublished material is included to provide more information about the kinds of research that have been conducted using SYMLOG. The references have all been incorporated into this listing.

Bales. R. F., & Isenberg, D. J. (1982).
SYMLOG and leadership theory.
In J. G. Hunt, U. Sekaran, & C. A. Schriesheim (Eds.), Leadership: Beyond establishment views, pp. 165­195. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Field diagrams based on SYMLOG ratings are used to illustrate aspects of group leadership. The concept of leadership advanced is one which includes "undesirable" types as well as "desirable", the basic criterion being one of effective initiation, maintenance, or termination of a process of unification or polarization of any kind in the group dynamic space. Suggestions for "desirable" types of leadership are given, for example, optimum kinds of behavior, imagery, or value content of superordinate group goals for mediation of a given kind of group polarization. The diagrams also show how the same person can be perceived differently by different members of a group. One study shows the location of Fiedler's concept "Least Preferred Co­worker" in the SYMLOG space, based on member's ratings.

Bales, R. F., Koenigs, R. J., & Roman, P. D. (1987).
Criteria for adaptation of SYMLOG rating items to particular populations and cultural contexts.
International Journal of Small Group Research 3 (2): 161-179.

Item content was analyzed for ratings from two sets of raters, those with a wish image in the PF quadrant and those with a wish image in the PB quadrant. In each case, the distribution of item images on a field diagram was strongly polarized toward the wish location. In the PF wish case, the orientation of polarization ran from PF to NB. In the PB case, the polarization ran from PB to NF. The authors conclude that the values raters wish to show in behavior are powerful determinants of the meanings these raters ascribe to the SYMLOG items. They suggest that analysis of wish images be included when adapting the SYMLOG rating items for use with particular populations and cultural contexts.

Barber, W. H., & Oestreich, R. W. (1992).
Socio-psychological effects of developmental writing in introductory psychology.
Unpublished paper.

Psychology students taking a lecture course are compared with those taking the same course supplemented by a writing enrichment course involving meeting in small groups. All students indicated how they would expect to be rated by their peers on the SYMLOG values form at the beginning and end of the course. In addition the students participating in the small groups rated each other. The changes for students who took part in small group discussions were in the expected direction, showing less dominance, more friendliness, and less conventionality. The changes for the students taking the lecture course were in the opposite direction. The small group experience did not yield a significant improvement in knowledge about psychology.

Barlow, D. H. (Ed.). (1988).
Images and understanding. Thoughts about images - ideas about understanding.
Cambridge: University Press.

Barrois, H. (1986).
Interaktionsverhalten von Frauen und Maennern in SYMLOG-Gruppen.
Diplomarbeit, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

The SYMLOG scoring data from 76 sessions of 20 academic self­analytic groups were analyzed to study differences between female and male participants. The predominant behavior of both sexes was instrumentally controlled. Although the amount of talking was similar for both sexes, there were statistically significant differences in some dimensional interaction categories. Males were seen to be more UB and UNB and less PF than females.

Barrois, H., & Schneider, J. F. (1987).
Interaction behavior of women and men in German SYMLOG groups.
International Journal of Small Group Research 3 (1) 113-118.

SYMLOG interaction scoring from 80 men and 85 women who had taken part self-analytic academic groups was analyzed. Men and women did not differ significantly in the total number of acts initiated, but men were found to address more acts to the group as a whole. Both men and women addressed members of the opposite sex more often than expected. Compared with women, men had a larger percentage of acts in the UB direction, because they initiated more dramatizations, stories, and jokes.

Bartos, O. J. (1989).
Personality in negotiation: A sociological approach.
International Journal of Small Group Research 5 (2): 163-187.

University undergraduates who played a bargaining game were rated by friends or spouses on a SYMLOG questionnaire based on Bales's 1970 work. They were classified as one of three types of personalities (dominant (U), sociable (P), or conforming (F)). Most clearly supported was the hypothesis that "sociable" negotiators will reciprocate more often and will be more fair than other personality types. In addition, the behavior of "conforming" negotiators was found to be consistent with the hypothesis that they will do what is expected of them: they made long speeches and tried to get agreements that were as favorable to their side as possible.

Batsuch, S. (2000).
Ein Personalführungskonzept für die Mongolische Staatsverwaltung.
Unveröffentlichte Dissertation. Speyer: Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften Speyer.

Baus, M., & Sandig, B. (1985).
Gespraechs­Psychotherapie und weibliches Selbstkonzept.
Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag.

Exploratory analysis of a series of therapeutic sessions with a single female patient, with emphasis on the self-concept, using and comparing a large number of social psychological and linguistic approaches to content analysis, including SYMLOG analysis of the patient's imagery.

Beck, D. (1982).
Die Theorie der persoenlichen Konstrukte (Kelly,1955) und der SYMLOG­Ansatz (Bales and Cohen, 1979): Ein Versuch der Integration.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A comparison of the theory and methods used by Bales and Kelly. It appears that the information concerning the individual person's constructs that may be elicited by the SYMLOG method is very similar to that elicited by the Kelly grid (a method used by clinical psychologists). The factor structure of the information produced by the two is very similar. The SYMLOG space gives a means of comparing and interpreting results of the two methods.

Beck, D. (1986).
The SYMLOG three dimensional space as a frame of reference for the comparison of individual construct systems.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (1): 71­76.

A link between the theory of personal constructs (Kelly,1955) and small group research is established to consider whether or not the SYMLOG three dimensional space may serve as a frame of reference for describing and structuring individual construct systems. The data matrices of 27 Kelly Grids were reduced to their principal components. A criterion factor structure was established by categorizing the constructs of each grid according to the SYMLOG space. In 24 cases Procrustes­ratio yielded a satisfactory correspondence between the two factor structures.

Beck, D. (1988).
Social differentiation in intergroup cooperation.
International Journal of Small Group Research 4 (1): 3-29.

In an experimental study, the consequences of striving for positive social identity were explored. The game "Town-Redevelopment" was used to establish cooperation between two planning groups. The superordinate goal was to discuss and change the use of the town area. After the discussion, each member rated both groups on cooperative and socially distant behavior (using 9 items scales based on SYMLOG). In addition each participant rated members of each group on a SYMLOG behavior questionnaire. A 2x2x2 (distinctiveness x involvement of social identity x stimuli) ANOVA with repeated measures was used to test the strength of in-group bias and the differential effects of two situational factors. The main result shows a significant in-group bias for cooperative behavior.

Beck, D. (1992).
Kooperation und Abgrenzung - Zur Dynamik von Intergruppen-Beziehungen in Kooperationssituationen.
Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag.

Uses SYMLOG ratings and coding for the analysis of intergroup relations combining Bales Social Interaction Field Theory and Tajfel and Turners „Social Identity Theory on Intergroup Relations.“ Published doctoral dissertation. FR Psychologie, Universität Konstanz.

Beck, D. (1994).
Führung und Zusammenarbeit bei kollektiven Entscheidungen in der öffentlichen Verwaltung.
Gruppendynamik, 25, 169-184.

Beck, D. (2001).
Sozialpsychologie kollektiver Entscheidungen. Ein interaktionsanalytischer Zugang (Social Psychology of Collective Decision-making. A social interaction analysis approach.)
Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag.

Published habilitation thesis. Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften Speyer. On the basis of Bales´ Field Theory of Social Interaction uses SYMLOG-content analysis and an extended form of the interaction process analysis for the study of group problem-solving and decision-making processes. The book presents among other studies an analysis of the social interaction processes at the behavioral and the content level of the film "Twelve Angry Men".

Beck, D. & Basmaji, M. (1995).
Umstrittene Großvorhaben im Spiegel der Presse.
In R. Fisch & D. Beck (Hrsg.)

Abfallnotstand als Herausforderung für die öffentliche Verwaltung. Eine sozial-wissenschaftliche Perspektive (S. 139-160). Speyerer Forschungsberichte 150. Speyer: Forschungsinstitut für öffentliche Verwaltung.

Beck, D. & Diehl, M. (1997b).
Advances in small group research: Contributions from German speaking countries between 1984 and 1995.
European Psychologist, 2, 368-376.

Beck, D. & Fisch, R. (1993).
Selbstkonzept und soziale Wahrnehmung zwischen Gruppen.
In B. Pörzgen & E. H. Witte (Hrsg.) Selbstkonzept und Identität (S. 83-107). Braunschweig: Schmidt.

Beck, D. & Fisch, R. (1994).
An intergroup perspective on small group processes
Revue Internatio-nale de Psychologie Sociale, 7, 63-80. Revised English version of Beck (1992).

Beck, D. & Fisch, R. (in press).
Dynamics of group role diversity in work teams: Belbin´s team role approach. In A. P. Hare (Ed.).
Analysis of social interaction systems. New York: University Press of America

Presents Belbin´s (1981, 1993) Team Role Approach and gives a theoretical, methodological and an empirical comparison to SYMLOG.

Beck, D. & Minkmar, H. (1986).
Struktur und Dynamik einer Arbeitsgruppe - Zum Zusammenhang von Personwahrnehmung und Verhalten aus der Sicht eines Vorgesetzten.
In H. Methner (Hrsg.) Psychologie in Betrieb und Verwaltung (S. 332-347). Wiesbaden: Deutscher Psychologen Verlag.

Beck, D., & Orth, B. (1995).
Wer wendet sich an wen? Muster in der Interaktion kooperierender Kleingruppen.
Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 26, S. 92-106.

Beck, D. & Orth. B. (2001).
Wer wendet sich an wen? Ordnungsmuster in der sozialen Interaktion in Kleingruppen.
In R. Fisch, D. Beck & B. Englich (Hrsg.) Projektgruppen in Organisationen. Praktische Erfahrungen und Erträge der Forschung (S. 287-306). Göttingen: Verlag für Angewandte Psychologie.

Becker, U. & Beck, D. (1986).
Zur Überprüfung von Gütekriterien des SYMLOG-Fragebogens „Leitvor-stellungen individuellen und organisationsbezogenen Handelns“.
SFB 221: Verwaltung im Wandel, Universität Konstanz, Projekt B4, Arbeitsbericht Nr. 13.

Becker, U. (1987).
Personwahrnehmung und Selbstkonzept. Zur Beziehung individueller Tendenzen in der Personwahrnehmung zum Selbstkonzept des Wahrnehmenden.
Frankfurt am Main u. a.: Lang. Published doctoral dissertation. Universität des Saarlandes, Saarbrücken.

Becker-Beck, U. (1989).
Methoden der Interaktionsprozeßdiagnostik. Eine Anwendung sequentieller Analysemethoden auf SYMLOG-Kodierungen von Gruppeninteraktionen.
Gruppendynamik, 20, S. 243-257.

Becker-Beck, U. (1989).
Methods of interaction process diagnosis: An application of sequential analytical methods to SYMLOG codings of group-interactions.
Gruppend-Z 20 (3) 243-257.

Becker-Beck, U. (1990).
Freie Personbeschreibungen als interaktionsdiagnostische Methode.
In J. F. Schneider (Ed.) Inhaltsanalyse alltagssprachlicher Beschreibungen sozialer Interaktionen. Beiträge zur SYMLOG-Kodierung von Texten (pp. 109-139). Saarbrücken: Dadder.

Becker, U. (1986).
Individual tendencies in person perception and the perceiver's self­concept.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (1): 77­82.

Forty­seven subjects first completed the self­concept grid (Orlik,1979), then saw the American film "12 Angry Men," and then judged the actors using free response descriptions and the SYMLOG behavior rating form. Through a three-way ANOVA design (approach tendency in the self­concept X avoidance tendency in the self­concept X stimulus persons) the study examined the ways in which the raters' self­concepts accounted for perceptual biases. Findings suggest that there is a tendency for those who avoid emotionality in themselves to fail to see extreme emotionality in others.

Becker, U., & Schneider, J. F. (1985).
Freie Personenbeschreibung als Datenquelle fuer die Analyse von Sozialverhalten in Kleingruppen.
Gruppenpsychotherapie und Gruppendynamik 2: 73­83.

Compares three methods for the description of interpersonal behavior in small groups: the retrospective free response description, the SYMLOG adjective rating form, and the SYMLOG scoring method. Seventeen subjects saw the film "Twelve angry men." After the film presentation they gave free response descriptions and SYMLOG ratings of the actors. SYMLOG interaction scoring was performed by four experienced coders. The data from the ratings and scorings were used to characterize the actors' interpersonal behavior on the three SYMLOG dimensions. In order to make the free response descriptions comparable with the other two methods, SYMLOG coding for all units of free response description was performed using the directional definitions. Scores for the three methods were correlated for the three dimensions. The results are presented as a multitrait­multimethod­matrix. The findings indicate a high convergent validity of the three methods.

Becker-Beck, U. (1989).
Methods of interaction process diagnosis: An application of sequential analytical methods to SYMLOG codings of group-interactions.
Gruppend-Z 20 (3): 243-257.

Becker-Beck, U., & Fisch, R. (1987).
Issues in the sequential analysis of group interaction processes.
International Journal of Small Group Research 3 (2): 198-212.

SYMLOG observation categories were grouped in Orlik's (1987) four behavioral types: withdrawal, conflict, sympathy, and accomplishment. Sequential analysis of behavior in a case study of four students revealed patterns in the stream of behavior and identified different interactional relations between group members.

Becker-Beck, U., & Schneider, J. F. (1990).
Small group research in German speaking countries.
Z Sozialpsy 21 (4): 274-297.

Bixby, T. D. (1978).
Action and speech­content: Perception in small group interaction.
Unpublished Honors thesis, Psychology and Social Relations, Harvard University.

Nine meetings of one of Bales's self-analytic groups were observed using SYMLOG act-by-act scoring. Group members also rated each other after each of these meetings, using a short­short form (three graphic dimensions, anchored on each end by short verbal descriptions). The average correlations between the observers scores of individuals (the ACT level added to the NON­verbal level) and the members ratings of the individuals were, for U­D: 71.6; for P­N: 73.9; and for F­B: 67.3. Content measures from the SYMLOG image scoring (location of PRO value statements made by each member) were less highly correlated with members ratings received from other members. It appears that the observers' ACT + NON scores are probably closer to the group members perceptions of each other than any other measures from SYMLOG scoring.

Bobrow, E. S. (1983).
Mother­adolescent daughter interaction and adherence to diabetic regimens.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, New York University.

Fifty girls between the ages of 12 and 17 participated in the study. Data were obtained through interviews and several interaction measures, including SYMLOG. The less adherent to diabetic regimens was the adolescent, the more emotionally charged was the mother­daughter interaction, the more confronting they were, and the less they converged in their communicative styles.

Bobula, K. A. (1996).
Characteristics of Administrator’s Leadership Style in Quality Child Care Centers
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Portland State University.

This study addresses the leadership characteristics of administrators of quality child care centers. Two factors were investigated: the leadership style of the administrator; and the organizational climate of the center, which is both directly and indirectly influenced by the administrator. SYMLOG Group Average Field Diagrams were used to display the findings. From this study, the leadership characteristics that the administrators of high quality child care centers shared in common were that they employed a balanced leadership style that utilized different approaches depending on the situation. The administrators in this study chose a mostly female approach to their job which seemed to create very healthy, responsive, and supportive work environments for the teacher-caregivers.

Boethius, S. B. (1987).
The view from the middle: Perceiving patterns of interaction in middle management groups.
International Journal of Small Group Research 3 (1): 1-15.

SYMLOG behavior ratings were used to assess the development of a group of six district managers and their two superiors. All group members were part of a municipal administration for child care in Sweden. Although the group was seen as unified at the beginning, it became polarized over a three-month period. The superintendents preferred district managers who were fairly dominant, positive, and expressive (UPB).

Bonacich, P. (1968).
Specialization and differentiation of leadership in small laboratory groups.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Twenty-four five-man groups of university undergraduates were observed in two task and two social sessions. Some of the groups were "cooperative" in that members were rewarded equally for group success, others were "competitive." Three types of leaders were identified: Instrumental leaders (Upward­Forward), Integrative leaders (Positive), and Expressive leaders (backward). As predicted, cooperative groups did have more instrumental problems and competitive groups did have more integrative and expressive problems. However the two types of groups did not differ in the degree of leader specialization.

Booher, M. E. (1976).
Effects of role and dominance on attribution and visualconversation behavior.
Unpublished Honors thesis, Psychology and Social Relations, Harvard University.

Thirty-two male university students were observed while discussing a set of problems with another student who had been instructed either to look at them while talking (an indication of dominance) or to look at them while listening (an indication of submission). The amount of looking while talking and listening was found to be related to the amount of information received, role changes, and the relative status of the discussants.

Bormann, E. (1972).
Fantasy and rhetorical vision: The rhetorical criticism of social reality.
Quarterly Journal of Speech 58 (Dec.): 396­407.

The concept of group fantasy chains from Bales's 1970 book is presented as "the key part to the puzzle" for rhetorical critics as to how "individual fantasizing extrapolates to speaker­audience fantasizing and to the dream merchants of the mass media." "The dramatizations which catch on and chain out in small groups are worked into public speeches and into the mass media and, in turn, spread across larger publics." Bormann's paper set off a chain of exploration and controversy among rhetoricians. (SYMLOG later provided a systematic way of content analyzing fantasy images, but it has not yet been much used for analysis of mass media content.)

Bradshaw, P. (1993).
Gender and culture: Investigating women's and men's perceptions.
Paper submitted to Small Group Research.

Understanding the values shown in the current culture of organizations and recognizing their gendered nature is an important step in the change process directed at breaking the barriers to advancement of women. Based on a sample of men and women in a cross section of Canadian organizations, using SYMLOG questionnaires, this paper compares their perceptions of the values currently reflected in their organization's cultures and the values which would ideally be reflected if women were fully integrated.

Breiger, R. L., & Ennis, J. G. (1979).
Personae and social roles: The network structure of personality types in the small group.
Social Psychology Quarterly 42 (3): 262­270.

Observations of roles of 21 university students in a self­analytic group are compared using "blockmodel analysis" and the SYMLOG categories. A significant association is found for the two methods for the dimensions Upward­Downward and Positive­Negative.

Brennan, J. S. (1982).
SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups.
Social Forces 60 (3): 959­961.

A review of the 1979 SYMLOG book.

Bronstein-Burrows, P. (1981).
Patterns of parent behavior: A cross-cultural study.
Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 27 (2): 129-143.

Report of Ph.D. thesis (Burrows, 1979) using 81 observational categories developed for this research plus Bales's (1979) method of coding direct observation. Expected correlations are found between dominant, submissive, positive, negative, expressive, and conscious controlled vectors of Bales with four factors derived from factor analysis of 81 categories: Warm equalitarianism vs punitive authoritarianism, psychological control, responsive instruction, and instrumental direction vs parentalism, with the exception of Bales's submissive vector which is not highly correlated with any of the new factors.

Brunner, Tschacher, & Nowack. [Univ. Tuebingen, Inst fuer Erziehungswissenschaft I, Germany.] (1994).
Gruppenentwicklung als Selbstorganisationsproze[s der Musterbildung [Group development as a self-organization process of pattern formation].
Gestalt Theory, 16(2), 89-100.

Studied the process of self-regulation in group development to test the hypothesis that the group development process is reflected in changes in a group's structural patterns. Ss were 17 university students participating in a communication skills training seminar. Ss evaluated each other's behaviors at the end of 8 group sessions via W. Nowack's (1989 and 1992) System for the Multiple-Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG), an adjective rating scale for the assessment of group structure. Changes in SYMLOG data over the course of the seminar were analyzed.

Bundy, M. L. (1989).
An Analysis of the Group Dynamics of Initial Multidisciplinary Team Meetings
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Tennessee.

This study was designed to analyze the group dynamics of multidisciplinary team (MDT) meetings that were held for elementary school students who were identified as having a specific learning disability. It is known that the climate of MDT meetings influences decision making in special education placement. The major findings of this study are: school psychologists were perceived to be more dominant and task-oriented than other MDT members; resource teachers were perceived to be more dominant and task-oriented than classroom teachers; classroom teachers were perceived to be as positive as school psychologists and resource teachers; parents were perceived to be submissive and to be less positive than school professionals during MDT meetings; and, a high percentage of MDT meetings were classified as Unified.

Burrows, P. B. (1979).
Parent­child behavior in a sample of Mexican families.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Parent­child behavior was observed in 19 lower and middle income Mexican families. Parents and children had reciprocal patterns of behavior that were related to the socio­economic level of the family, independent of family size. Significant differences were found between behavior of mothers and fathers, between boys and girls, and between the behavior of the children to each of their parents. For example, girls were more compliant than boys, whereas boys were more openly oppositional and aggressive, as well as more passively resistant than girls.

Campbell, A. (1988).
An Analysis of the Sequences and Patterns Characterizing the Interaction of Conflict Episode Performances in Small Task-Oriented Groups
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University.

This study of conflict in small task-oriented groups conceptualizes conflict as an interactive process consisting of sequential and cyclical behaviors; and it creates a link between the deterministic and interactive orientations toward research into small group conflict behaviors by utilizing the concepts of conflict types and resolution forms as boundaries for investigating sequences, sequential patterns, and their cyclicity in the interaction of conflict episode performances. Participants in the study were graduate students involved, for a period of ten weeks, in learning and applying the theory, methods and measurement tools of SYMLOG (a System for the Multiple Level Observation of Groups). The results indicate that the interaction systems of affective avoiding and substantive avoiding conflict episodes tend to be characterized by: a lack of sequences, sequential patterns and cyclicity.

Carey, P. J. (1986).
A Communications Perspective on Chronic Mental Patients
Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, University of South Africa.

In this study, the phenomenon known as "chronic mental illness" was investigated systemically. The aim was to identify recurrent behaviour patterns in the interpersonal environments of persons designated chronically ill and provide mental hospital staff with suggestions for dealing with such persons. Data consisted of: formal observations, using SYMLOG (Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups) of patient and staff behaviour in a chronic female ward in a state mental hospital; and, personal interviews with patients and staff, patient file information and informal observation. The results generally supported the theoretical model adopted and chronic interpersonal behaviour patterns were delineated, although the nature of the postulates investigated precluded conclusive proof or disproof thereof. Nonetheless, the model constitutes a viable alternative to traditional approaches, and several practical suggestions were made accordingly.

Chansom, N. (1997).
Value Orientations of Agricultural Leaders in Farmer Associations in Thailand
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, United States International University.

This study compared the work-related value orientations of junior and senior leaders in Farmer Associations in Thailand. Samples of junior leaders (N = 122) and senior leaders (N = 119) in Farmer Associations in Thailand responded to demographic and SYMLOG questionnaires asking about the value orientations of

1. the current culture of their associations;
2. their perceptions of how they expect their members to see them as leaders;
3. the behaviors that they actually show; and
4. the way they personally could be most effective.

Although the overall value orientations of the junior and senior leaders did not differ significantly, individual value orientations were found to be significantly different for junior and senior leaders for:

1. five values regarding their perceptions of how they expect their members to view them as leaders;
2. one value concerning their perceptions of their actual leadership performances; and
3. five values concerning most effective leader behaviors.

Cohen, S. P. (1972).
Varieties of interpersonal relationships in small groups.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

A number of self­analytic groups of university students were observed throughout a term, using SYMLOG scoring, and also filled out Cohen's "Significant Relationship Form" at the end of the term. The form is designed to elicit descriptions in respondent's own language of "significant relationships" of others to self, including even those that were only imagined or dreamed about, and whether with one, two, three, or more members, that involved "feelings" (regardless of type or direction of feeling). Descriptions of relationships "significant to the group as a whole" were also elicited. Although group members felt that dyadic relationships were most important, many choices of the most significant others were not reciprocated. Dominant (Upward) group members were most often chosen as significant for individual group members and as significant for the group as a whole. However the group leader was not seen as significant in a relationship to the self by many group members.

Corso, M. F. (1987).
Interprofessional Perceptions and Verbal Interaction during Multidisciplinary Team Staff Conferences
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Fordham University.

The present study involved the tape recording of child study team case conferences which were scored by Bales' SYMLOG method. The team members were also administered the Interprofessional Perception Scales developed by Golin and Ducanis (1981) which determined if team members held different perceptions than their colleagues on a number of professional issues. It was hypothesized that teams that held perceptions of items in consonance (i.e., Accord, Agreement, and Understanding) would have better patterns of communication as determined from SYMLOG (friendly, instrumentally controlled, and dominant) than teams which held dissonance on interprofessional perceptions. It was found that when teams perceived themselves in harmony on the scale of items of a professional nature at the direct perception level, the content of the staffings showed significance with regard to friendly comments. After supplemental analyses of dialogue content, it was concluded that communication during team staff conferences was highly task oriented with data presented in a dogmatic manner and strong independence of disciplines maintained with style of interaction more influenced than quality of decision making.

Couch, A. S. (1960).
Psychological determinants of interpersonal behavior.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Data from observations of 12 five-man groups of university students over five sessions were analyzed through a series of factor analyses. High correlations were found between overt behavior and the combined effects of underlying needs, concealment defenses, apperceived press, and behavioral press. The correlations increase with the addition of each of these measures into the total predictive measure. Retrospectively, Bales regards this as good evidence that it is important to measure "multiple levels" of behavior in constructing the "social interaction field." Bales was part of the observation team using his 12 interaction process categories as was Kassebaum who used a set of value categories. The data from this dissertation provided the basis for the shift from the use of 12 categories for interaction process analysis to measurement in terms of dimensions and multiple levels of interpersonal behavior.

Cowen, M. A. (1992).
Team building with SYMLOG.
In A. P. Hare, Groups, teams, and social interaction, pp. 65-87. New York: Praeger.

SYMLOG Field Diagrams and Bargraphs were used in a comprehensive program of management and staff training as a New England winter resort expanded its operation to an all year business.

Cowen, M. A. (1998).
The Relationship between Behavior and Value Assessments of Leader/Managers by their Coworkers in Organizations
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, United States International University.

This study investigated the relationship between observed behavior and the values attributed to it. Data consisted of sets of five to seven SYMLOG behavior and value assessments by coworkers of 350 leader/managers. A systematic relationship between rated behavior and rated values was confirmed.

Crespi, T. D. (1993).
SYMLOG—clinical technology for therapist family-of-origin and family system appraisal.
Contemporary Family Therapy, 15(5), 369-380.

SYMLOG, an acronym for Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups, reflects a technology for the quantification and graphic organization of subjective observational data. The SYMLOG field diagram—a graphic diagram which reflects relational interactions on three dimensions—provides the opportunity to analyze the admixture of therapist family of origin dynamics in conjunction with family relational behaviors. This article presents a sample SYMLOG clinician family of origin evaluation with accompanying elaboration surrounding SYMLOG field theory.

D’Allura, T. (1986).
Nonverbal Behavior: An Important Dimension in the Prediction of Small Group Performance
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Hofstra University.

In this study, it was hypothesized that the examination of the construct of communication including both verbal and nonverbal aspects would significantly increase our understanding of why some groups are more effective than others. Specifically, groups characterized by high levels of verbal and nonverbal activity would perform significantly differently than those characterized by low levels of activity. It was also hypothesized that the nonverbal dimension of communication, as measured by the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS), and SYMLOG, would increase the magnitude of the relationship between communication and individual performance. A significant relationship was found between the group's verbal reception and group performance.

Daniel, H. D. (1985).
Internal consistency of SYMLOG adjective rating scales: A comparison of four studies.
Unpublished paper, FR Psychologie, Universitaet Konstanz.

Four studies of SYMLOG behavior adjective rating scales (the one by Cohen in the SYMLOG 1979 text, one by Schneider and Zimmer, and two by the author, Daniel) are examined. For satisfactory 18-item scales of the SYMLOG type, where items are deliberately chosen to measure separate vectors, Cronbach's coefficient alpha may be expected to range from .67 to .86. Results indicate that over the four studies the P­N scales are highly consistent (reliable), with alphas ranging .65 to .97 (perhaps too redundant). The F­B scales are less good, ranging from .46 to .81. The U­D scales are not very satisfactory, for reasons that are not clear, ranging from .16 to .71. Cohen's measure of item quality indicate that the singly named vectors (U, D, P, N,F, B) are generally good, but the doubly and triply named vectors have too many poor items. The author believes it may not be possible to improve them much because of the difficulty of constructing them, for example, UPB, NF, DNF.

Darstein­Bach, R. (1981).
Erprobung einer Kinderform der SYMLOG­Rating­Methode an einer Schulkindergartengruppe (Fallstudie).
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A case study describing the application of a SYMLOG rating form for children in the context of a nursery school.

Davidson, R. A. (1988).
Selection-Socialization Control in Auditing Firms: A Test of Ouchi’s Model of Control
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Arizona.

This research tests the descriptive validity of Ouchi's model of organizational control when it is applied to auditing firms. An analysis of Ouchi's model and other writings indicates that the selection-socialization type of control (or clan control or control by a strong organizational culture) would be expected to be used in auditing firms and that it would he evidenced by similarities in values perceived to be held by clan members. Findings provided some support for the descriptive validity of Ouchi's model, but the evidence is mixed. The sets of perceived values found in staff of auditing firms do not appear to come from a single set, but the perceived values of each firm are different. Offers do appear to be made to individuals who have different sets of perceived values when compared to people who did not receive offers. No evidence was found to indicate that length of association within firm results in more similar sets of perceived values being held by firm members.

Davidson, R. A. (1989).
Use of parametric statistics for ordinal data.
International Journal of Small Group Research 5 (2): 201-210.

The use of prespecified response categories for SYMLOG questionnaires results in data that are ordinal in nature (i.e. ratings for three categories of response: "rarely," "sometimes," or "often"). Ordinal data strictly do not permit the use of any parametric statistics, including means and variances. University students were asked to assign probabilities to various response categories, including rarely, sometimes, and often. The intervals in estimated probability between the categories was found to be nearly equal. Thus the results indicate that the use of parametric statistics for SYMLOG results is not unreasonable when three categories are used. The differences in intervals for the five-item response format may be too large for some purposes.

Davies, A. F. (1980).
Skills, outlooks, and passions.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Argues that the three-dimensional space is a major contribution to understanding the varieties of political ideology and that survey measurements of values in the three dimensions are more helpful in understanding political personalities and issue outcomes than traditional indicators of position on a spectrum from far right to far left, political party affiliation, ethnicity, or other sociological classifications. Reviews case studies of H. A. Murray with regard to predictions in Bales's 1970 book, Personality and interpersonal behavior.

Diehl-Becker, A. (1987).
Comparison of a German and an American version of a SYMLOG-atlas on Every-day descriptions of behavior.
International Journal of Small Group Research 3 (2): 213-219.

English and German versions of semantical atlases that are associated with SYMLOG vectorial probes are compared and found to be consistent.

Dion, K. L., & Evans, C. R. (1992).
On cohesiveness: Reply to Keyton and other critics of the construct.
Small Group Research 23 (2): 242-250.

In a reply to Keyton (1992), Dion and Evans find "eminently sensible" her observation that SYMLOG indicators, such as polarization and unification indexes, can be taken as cohesiveness measures only when the group members rate their interaction on the Positive side of the SYMLOG space. They go on to assert that the measures of performance need in different studies not be the same in order to be meaningfully compared with each other.

Downes, Y. M. (1994).
Mother/Adolescent Interaction and Maternal Well-being: The Applicability of Exchange Theory
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.

This project utilizes social exchange theory to assess the interactive relationship between mothers and their adolescent children with respect to maternal well-being. It is argued that mothers weigh the costs and rewards of interaction, and that exchange outcomes affect maternal self-esteem, life satisfaction, and levels of psychological distress. Exchange and equity approaches to the study of interaction are contrasted, as based on equity theory it is argued that maternal well-being is highest when the relative outcome of the interaction with adolescent children is balanced. Gender interaction effects are examined, and the nonlinear nature of the relationship between exchange outcomes and maternal well-being is considered. Data analyses provide some mixed support for the proposition that exchange relations affect maternal well-being, as these impacts vary according to the measure of well-being and exchange used in the analysis.

Dunphy, D. C. (1968).
Phases, roles, and myths in self analytic groups.
Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences 4: 195­226.

Data consist of a content analysis of free descriptions of important events and topics made by students after each session of one of the groups of Bales's course, taught by Dunphy. The free descriptions were transcribed and reduced to quantitative word counts by "The General Inquirer", a computer method for content analysis developed by P. Stone, D. Dunphy, D. Ogilvie, and M. Smith (MIT Press). The full description is given in Dunphy's doctoral dissertation, Department of Social Relations, Harvard University. Dunphy's factor analysis was helpful to Bales in giving clues for the description of the three dimensional SYMLOG space of the 1970 book.

Edelman, P. D. (1983).
Values and interpersonal conflict.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

A Value Implications Task (VIT) given at the beginning of the term was used to assess differences in the way members of a self­analytic group of university students polarized the value space (a measure of one aspect of the "social knowledge structure"). Deviations of individuals from the group average VIT profile were found to correlate significantly with both friendly and unfriendly acts received by them subsequently in the course of the term from the group as a whole. Presumably both types of acts were intended as corrective feedback to them. These findings failed to replicate strongly in a second self­analytic group.

Edelman, P. D., & Maddocks, A. (1985).
Steps to finding the right players for an employee­owned team.
Employee Ownership (A publication of the National Center for Employee Ownership 5, 5, October ). 25 Brigham Street, Westborough, MA 01581.

Description of the potential uses of SYMLOG:

1. to define patterns of attitudes, values and beliefs which can be used to select effective and productive team­oriented employees;
2. to develop a detailed picture of the current organizational climate and culture;
3. to increase productivity and competitive performance through planned changes in climate and culture, and
4. to build teamwork and group problem­solving skills in specific teams.

Edelman, P. D., & Palmerino, M. (1988).
SYMLOG in marketing research.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 271-280. New York: Praeger.

The use of SYMLOG Field Diagrams for market research is reported. Customers of fast-food restaurants were asked to rate the values represented by the service at several restaurants for comparison with their concepts of the "best" and "worst" restaurants, and the restaurant of their client. The practices of the restaurant closest to the "best" indicate the characteristics of a restaurant that customers prefer (e.g., pricing, food quality, ambiance, service quality, cleanliness, and convenience).

Eldredge, B. (1994).
A Test Model of Group Effectiveness .
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Texas at Dallas.

Some models suggest that heterogeneity, adherence to norms, and the reduction of polarization are all positively related to group effectiveness. This study sought to test these assertions with the exception that heterogeneity was predicted to have an inverted-U shaped relationship with effectiveness. The sample consisted of 39 intact groups of students from a southwestern university. The aspects of group structure were measured within Polley's adaptation of Bales and Cohen's SYMLOG framework. The results indicate the importance of activities that encourage development in temporary groups, and the importance of performance-related norms in all groups where productivity is of concern.

Ellis, S., Nadler, A., & Rabin, A. [Tel Aviv Univ., Recanati Grad. Sch. Business Adm., IL-69978 Ramat Aviv, Israel.] (1996).
Political leaders in the SYMLOG space: perceptions of right and left wing leaders by right and left wing constituencies.
Leadership Quarterly, 7(4), 507-526.

Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG) was applied to studying images of political leaders. Three left wing and three right wing Israeli leaders were evaluated by left and right wing voters along the SYMLOG's three dimensions—friendliness, task orientation, and dominance. It was found that right wing voters rated right wing leaders higher on friendliness and task orientation than left wing leaders. In a similar fashion, left wing voters viewed left wing lenders as more friendly and task-oriented than right wing leaders. Leaders of the right were viewed as more dominant than leaders of the left by left and right wing voters alike. Right and left wing voters assigned different SYMLOG types to right and left wing leaders. The dimension that distinguished between the various images was the dimension of friendliness. Whereas for right wing voters, all images of right wing leaders included a component of friendliness, none of these three images included an accented component of friendliness when rated by left wing voters. In a similar fashion, left wing voters saw two out of the three left wing leaders as including a component of friendliness, whereas none of the three left wing images included this component for right wing voters. Respondents from the right and the left rated their "ideal leader" as reflecting values of "dominance," "friendliness," and "task orientation." However, respondents saw leaders affiliated with their own political camp as close of the ideal leader on friendliness and task orientation than leaders of the opposite political camp. Both right and left wing voters saw all political leaders as equally similar to their image of "ideal leader" on the "dominance" dimension regardless of that leader's political affiliation.

Ennis, J. G. (1980).
The structure of interaction in five SYMLOG groups: A blockmodel study of cores and peripheries.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Five self­analytic groups of university students were observed, each for a full term, using SYMLOG interaction scoring. The who­to­whom profile of interaction of each member in relation to each other member was analyzed according to White and Brieger's "blockmodel" method. All groups tended to show a core block of a similar character and one or more peripheral blocks. It appears that the blockmodel method gives information that is complementary to that portrayed in the field diagram. (The field diagram of a group abstracts from the who­to­whom matrix information.)

Ernst, M. M. (1989).
Interactions of the protagonists and their auxiliary egos in psychodrama: Process analysis and comparisons using the SYMLOG interaction scoring.
International Journal of Small Group Research 5 (1): 89-118.

SYMLOG interaction scoring is used to study the changes over phases of a session of psychodrama between protagonists and auxiliary egos. Significant phase related changes as found in behavior patterns of sympathy, conflict, and withdrawal correspond to basic concepts of the protagonist centered session and suggest that these SYMLOG categories are relevant to the group process in psychodrama.

Faisst, P. (1981).
SYMLOG­Theorie. Einige wissenschaftstheoretische Anmerkungen zu den Konzepten "Sprache" und "Handlung."
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A language philosophical analysis of SYMLOG theory.

Farago, S. (1983).
A study of the relationship between birth order and position in the family social hierarchy in families with and without a moderately mentally handicapped child.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, School of Education, Health, Nursing and Arts Professions, New York University.

Eighty­seven families having at least three children, some with a moderately mentally handicapped child, were studied using SYMLOG ratings from family members. Firstborn children were perceived to be more instrumentally controlled, responsible, and task oriented than children of other birth orders, regardless of handicapping condition. Family members perceived handicapped children to be more friendly and emotionally expressive than non­handicapped children.

Farrell, M. P., Schmitt, M. H., & Heinemann, G. D. (1986).
Informal roles, rituals, and styles of humor in interdisciplinary health care teams: Their relationship to stages in group development.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 143-162.

Informal roles, such as clown, superman or wonderwoman, tyrant, and helper, were observed in two health care teams during different stages of group development and described in SYMLOG terms. The authors conclude that roles, rituals, and humor both express and constrain the disruptive affect characteristic of each stage of development.

Farrell, M. P., Schmitt, M. H., & Heinemann, G. D. (1988).
Organizational environments of health care teams: Impact on team development and implications for consultation.
International Journal of Small Group Research 4 (1): 31-53.

In two interdisciplinary health care teams the stage of development (using Tuckman's four-stage model: a) Testing and dependency, b) Conflict, c) Cohesion and consensus, and d) Functional role relatedness) the stage of development was influenced by the degree of embeddedness in discipline-specific vs. team networks, the structure of work cycles, and the degree of clarity of roles for members with authority. One team that was more embedded in discipline-specific networks, was in the Dependency Stage. The other team, than was more embedded in the team network and had less clearly defined supervisory roles, was in the Conflict Stage. SYMLOG scales were used to measure changes in the informal role structure of the teams.

Fassheber, P., & Terjung, B. (1985).
SYMLOG rating data and their relationship to performance and behavior beyond the group situation.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (2): 97­108.

Based on SYMLOG adjective ratings of 127 students in 27 groups, the diagnostic value of each of the three SYMLOG dimensions (UD, PN, and FB) with regard to each of three images (self­image, expected image (from others), and actual image (from others) was examined in order to determine the predictability of behavioral characteristics outside the group situation. Descriptions of social behavior, judgments of performance by tutors, and grades on written examinations were used as criteria. It was shown that the greater the semantic similarity to the criterion variable, the higher the predictive power of the SYMLOG dimension, and that the predictive validity of the expected image (from others) was higher than that of both the actual image (from others) and the self image.

Fassheber, P., & Terjung, B. (1988).
SYMLOG team diagnostics as organizational development.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 99-115. New York: Praeger.

Experience in providing feedback to teams as part of a program of organizational development is summarized, including team diagnostics, feedback and group discussion.

Fine, G. A. (1976).
A group space analysis of interpersonal dynamics.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Thirty­two experimental groups of five or six university students were observed during two discussion sessions. During the second session a confederate of the experimenter, posing as a student, played one of four roles: Upward­Positive­Forward, Upward­Positive­Backward, Upward­Negative­Forward, or Upward­Negative­Backward. (The two Negative types were only very mildly Negative, however, for ethical reasons.) The confederate was found to exert a substantial pull on other group members to interact in the same part of the three-dimensional space, especially when he was relatively well liked. Polarization of a group into subgroups was negatively correlated with enjoyment and satisfaction with the group.

Fisch, R. (1985).
Handanweisung zur Ermittlung von Leitvorstellungen des Verhaltens in Gruppen und Organisationennach dem SYMLOG­Verfahren.
(Translation, unpublished) FR Psychologie, Universitaet Konstanz.

An introduction and a German translation by R. Fisch of the booklet by R. Bales, 1984, The SYMLOG key to individual and organizational values, SYMLOG Consulting Group

Fromm, I. (1981).
Ein Verleich der Selbstkonzepterhebungs­Methoden von Orlik und Bales.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A comparison of methods used by Orlik and Bales for the study of self­concepts.

Fuller-Kimbrough, G. A. (1994).
An Examination of Leadership Behaviors and Their Relationship to Cohesiveness in the Pupil Service Teams of a Northeastern, Urban School District
Unpublished Doctor of Education dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.

This research is a multi-case study of leadership behavior and its relationship to cohesiveness in pupil service teams of a northeastern, urban school district. The study used seven instruments to examine the factors that affected seven teams. The conclusions drawn supported that notion that the principal was an important variable in determining the effectiveness of a pupil service team. The collaborative teacher was found to play a very important role as the informal leader of the team. Therefore the effectiveness of the team is highly influenced by the behaviors of this individual.

Fulton, K. S. (1990).
Group Performance as a Function of Interaction Process: An Application of the SYMLOG System
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Tennessee.

The purpose of this study is to investigate group performance as a function of group interaction process, using SYMLOG as a method of documenting group interaction. No relationship between group performance and group processes was found. Indices of interpersonal processes included the SYMLOG effectiveness score, Euclidean distances as an indicator of cohesiveness, deviations from the optimal SYMLOG profile, and summary ratings on the three SYMLOG dimensions.

Gasser, L. S. (1991).
The Dynamics of Mediator Behavior in Conflict Resolution: A SYMLOG Description of Mediator Behavior at the Triadic Level
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University.

This descriptive study explored the dynamics of mediator behavior by investigating mediator style, the mediation itself, and the dynamics of the parties together. Of particular interest were issues of mediator neutrality, dominance, and task control by the mediator and parties as they relate to mediation outcome and duration. The results of this limited study suggest the potential usefulness of the SYMLOG method in mediation research, and a need for more and larger field studies into the character of neutrality.

Gibbard, G. S. (1981).
A framework for the integration of social psychology.
Contemporary Psychology 26 (1): 14­15.

A review of the book: SYMLOG, A system for the multiple level observation of groups.

Goodman, I. F. (1984).
The relationship between the perceptions of family interaction and of television's role in the family.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation in Education, Harvard University.

Data from 21 working-class families (94 individuals) were collected through interviews and B. Parke's adaptation of the SYMLOG adjective rating form suitable for children, so that the children of the family could contribute ratings. In half of the families perceptions among family members were very congruent, while in the other half, they ranged from fairly congruent to very discordant. Perceptions of the use of power when the family was watching television were strongly related to measures of family functioning in other areas. In the majority of the families it was the mother who had both the most authority in the TV situations (instituted and enforced TV rules) and was also perceived as the most task­oriented person in the family, followed by the father, and then the children according to age. Patterns of dominance in TV situations (who wins when the family members want to watch different programs at the same time) were less hierarchical in nature but still strongly related to perceptions of dominance and activity in other areas.

Goetzmann, W., & Lessel, D. (1980).
Trainingseffekte in SYMLOG­Gruppen. Veraenderung einiger sozialpsychologischer Kennwerte.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A description of the development and application of a procedure for quantifying SYMLOG coding skills.

Goetzmann, W., Schneider, J. F., & Orlik, P. (1982).
Beurteilung von SYMLOG­Kodierleistungen: Einstandardisiertes Verfahren zur Trainingskontrolle.
Arbeiten der FR Psychologie der Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken, Nr. 82.

A test manual for quantifying SYMLOG coding skills.

Graham, Q. (1984).
The relationship between style of leadership and organizational culture: An exploratory study.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, George Washington University.

Directors of 20 child­care centers rated themselves on the SYMLOG adjective checklist and were also rated by members of their staffs. No leader rated herself as friendly. Although there was some variety in the leadership styles, four of the six styles included Forward behavior.

Greenberg, C., Sloane, E., & Woodson, J. (1971).
Interaction patterns of families with a suicidal adolescent.
Unpublished Master's dissertation, School of Social Work, University of Southern California.

Nine families of suicidal adolescents (8 females and 1 male) were observed during discussion of three tasks. Interaction profiles based on Bales's 12 categories were converted to indicators in the three-dimensional space. With only three exceptions all individuals fell into the Downward, Negative Backward part of the space. Although the negativity of the families did correspond to the observers clinical impressions, they questioned whether the general norms for converting percentage IPA profiles were appropriate for this population.

Grieser, A. (1984).
Selbstkonzept und Anorexia nervosa. Ein Beitrag zur Validierung des Selbstkonzeptgitters.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A study of the self­concept of anorexia nervosa patients.

Gruenfeld, L. W. & Lin, T. R. (1984).
Social behavior of field independents and dependents in an organic group.
Human Relations 37 (9): 721-741.

Self-analytic student groups who were "field dependent" were found to be more task-oriented and contributing more to problem solving than groups of "field independent" students. Those who were "field independent" were more social and emotional, rebellious, and resistant.

Gualtieri, J. J. (1983).
Transition to parenthood: A study of its effects on the perception of stressfulness of life events, self­esteem, social­support, and marital relationship.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.

Twenty couples who were not parents, 29 couples with one child under five years of age, and 21 couples with more than one child and whose oldest child was under five years of age were interviewed and given a series of questionnaires, including the SYMLOG adjective rating form. Men were rated as more dominant and women more submissive. Fathers were rated as more task­oriented and mothers as more emotionally expressive.

Hare, A. P. (1985a).
Creativity and conformity during Egypt­Israel negotiations.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (2): 122­130.

Using the SYMLOG categories and categories for levels of creativity, two instances of negotiations between Egypt and Israel are compared. One negotiation took place in 1956 when an Emissary from the United States shuttled between President Nasser in Egypt and Prime Minister Ben­Gurion in Israel. The other negotiation was in 1978 when President Carter of the United States brought President Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Begin of Israel to Camp David. The Emissary and President Carter differed in their use of direct pressures toward conformity and in their use of images, reflecting differences in their objectives and their statuses. The Emissary was more positive both in his direct behavior and in his use of images. All participants seemed to assume that persuasion through the use of images would be more effective that direct behavioral attempts.

Hare, A. P. (1985b).
The significance of SYMLOG in the study of group dynamics.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (1): 38­50.

References in the Psychological Abstracts and the Social Sciences Citation Index were used to compare the influence of the work of Lewin in group dynamics, Moreno in sociometry, and Bales in research on small groups. Although Lewin is the most widely quoted if his work on personality and applied psychology are included, Bales receives the most attention from those studying small groups. Examples are given of the way SYMLOG theory can be used to organize the social­psychological literature, codify dramatic situations, and represent the types of images used to resolve social conflicts.

Hare, A. P. (1986).
Expressive and anticonforming behavior and subgroup formation on the Raft Acali.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 197-209.

Hare reports that on some occasions, two aspects of the Forward-Backward dimension, namely Serious versus Expressive and Acceptance of Authority versus non Acceptance of Authority, could be measured separately to provide a better fit between evidence of group polarization in field diagrams and data revealing interpersonal choice.

Hare, A. P. (1989).
New Field Theory: SYMLOG research, 1960-1988.
Advances in Group Processes 6: 229-257.

This review of SYMLOG research on a variety of business, military, and educational groups indicates that the theory and associated methods are useful in identifying superior leaders and task groups as well as groups that may be split into polarized subgroups, or may only be unified at the expense of a scapegoat. The approach is used for consultation with managers, leaders, teachers, therapists, and trainers, as well as with groups and organizations with which they work. Most of the selections reviewed by Hare have been incorporated into this reference list.

Hare, A. P. (1992).
SYMLOG analysis.
In A. P. Hare, Groups, teams, and social interaction, pp. 125-141. New York: Praeger.

A summary of the SYMLOG system for the analysis of group behavior using questionnaires and direct observation.

Hare, A. P., Kritzer, H. M., & Blumberg, H. H. (1979).
Functional analysis of persuasive interaction in a role-playing experiment.
Journal of Social Psychology 107: 77­88.

In a role­playing experiment 186 male university students were separately confronted by someone (an actor) who asked them to sign a petition. In each encounter the actor played a role that represented some combination of dominant or submissive, Positive or Negative, and serious or expressive behavior, in addition to other variables. The highest conformity occurred when the actor was dominant and Positive and the values represented by the petition were consistent with the subject's role.

Hare, A. P., & Naveh, D. (1985).
Creative problem solving: Camp David Summit, 1978.
Small Group Behavior 16 (2): 123­138.

Examples of creative problem solving are drawn from the negotiations by delegations from Egypt, Israel, and the United States at Camp David in 1978. SYMLOG Field Diagrams are used to show the relationships of the participants, in an example of social­emotional creativity, and of images, in an example of task creativity. The five levels of creativity identified by Taylor are used to rate decisions, ranging from those at the lowest level that bypass the issues to those at the highest level that introduce a new definition of the situation.

Hare, A. P., & Naveh, D. (1985).
Conformity and creativity: Camp David, 1978.
Small Group Behavior 17 (3): 243-268.

Instances of negotiation between representatives of Egypt and Israel were coded using SYMLOG vectors. The types of pressures toward conformity used by the third party mediators were found to be related to their statuses relative to the representatives of the two nations.

Hare, A. P. [Ben-Gurion Univ., Beer Sheva IL-84105, Israel; e-mail: paulhare@bgumail.bgu.ac.il.] (1997).
Combining Situational Variables to Predict Social Interaction: A Three Dimensional Perspective.
Paper given at the meeting of the American Sociological Association (ASA).

The expected effect on an actor of each of the salient situational variables can be estimated in terms of three dimensions of a conceptual social space: upward-downward (dominance vs. submission), positive-negative (friendly vs. unfriendly), & forward-backward (accepting vs. opposing the task orientation of established authority). When the scores on the three dimensions are multiplied by weights representing the system level of each variable in a cybernetic hierarchy (from biological [state], at the bottom, through personality [trait], social system, culture, & environment at the top), the weighted average provides an estimate of the resultant behavior of the actor with regard to the form of social interaction. The location of the images & the resultant expected behavior can be visualized on a SYMLOG field diagram. An estimate of task behavior will need to be added to the model for a more inclusive prediction of both the social & task aspects of interpersonal behavior.

Hare, A. P. Hare, S. E. & Blumberg. H. H. (1998).
Wishful thinking: Who has the least preferred coworker?
Small Group Research, 29, 419-435.

In Fiedler's theory of leadership, two types of leaders, relationship-oriented & task-oriented, are identified by their ratings of the least preferred coworker (LPC) that they have known. The rating scale primarily measures the extent to which the coworker is friendly or unfriendly, but also measures the degree of task orientation. Data from 20 groups of managers all rated the values associated with their ideal (wish), each other, & the least effective member they have known, using SYMLOG scales (for dominance vs. submission, friendly vs. unfriendly, & task oriented & conforming vs. nonconforming), suggest that Fiedler had his types reversed. The manager whose ideal was relationship-oriented was the one who gave the lowest ratings on friendliness. Ratings by university students in England, where few have an ideal that is extremely task-oriented, suggest that Fiedler may have been gathering data from leaders who combined a task & relationship orientation, since these persons, using Fiedler's LPC scale, do give lower ratings to their LPC than relationship-oriented persons.

Hare, A. P.; Hare, S. E.; & Koenigs, R. J. [Ben Gurion Univ. Negev, Dept. Behav. Sci, IL-84105 Beer Sheva, Israel]. (1996).
Implicit personality theory, social desirability, and reflected appraisal of self in the context of new field theory (SYMLOG).
Small Group Research, 27(4), 504-531.

Members of organizations in the United States, in 20 intact teams of 10 or more persons, each rated on a SYMLOG questionnaire the values of the other team members and the values that they would wish to show in their own behavior (ideal). The values scores on three dimensions (dominance vs. submissiveness, friendly vs. unfriendly behavior, and accepting vs. opposing the task orientation of established authority) of a member's ideal were compared with ratings of other team members and the self-rating. Significant positive correlations indicate that a member judged others (in terms of implicit personality theory) and his or her self (in terms of social desirability) according to the weighing given to the three values dimensions in the wished for behavior (ideal). In addition, there were positive correlations between members' self-ratings and how they expected to be rated, as well as with the average rating they received.

Hare, A. P.; Koenigs, R. J.; & Hare, S. E. [Dept. Behavioral Sciences, Ben Gurion Univ., Negev, IL-84105 Beer Sheva, Israel]. (1992).
Perceived SYMLOG Values Affecting Teamwork of Male and Female Leaders.
Paper given at the meeting of the American Sociological Association (ASA).

Male (M) & female (F) managers from business organizations completed a 26-item SYMLOG value questionnaire, rating themselves & their ideal, as part of a leadership program. At least 5 sets of ratings were made by the coworkers of each manager, rating the values of the managers & the coworkers' ideal profile for a manager. The questionnaire covers 3 dimensions of values: dominant vs. submissive, friendly vs. unfriendly, & accepting the task orientation of established authority vs. opposing it. For both managers & coworkers, Fs were expected & observed to be more friendly than Ms. The actual values of both F & M managers with regard to being dominant & friendly were lower than the ideal as judged by their coworkers. In contrast, all were perceived by coworkers as more accepting of the task orientation of authority than their coworkers judged to be ideal. Both sets of managers agreed that they placed a high value on this dimension, but they also believed it would be effective to be even more task-oriented Managers who were seen as having high values on dominance were not judged to be very task-oriented.

Hare, A. P.; Koenigs, R. J.; & Hare, S. E. [Ben Gurion Univ. Negev, IL-84105 Beer Sheva, Israel; SYMLOG Consulting Group, San Diego, CA]. (1997).
Perceptions of observed and model values of male and female managers.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(5), 437-447.

To provide evidence of the relationship between expectations for the values that should be exhibited for effective performance by female and male managers and their actual values, data were used that had been collected as part of a leadership program conducted for managers of business organizations in the United States. From a pool of approximately 700 managers, samples were drawn of 130 male and 130 female managers. As part of leadership program, the managers had completed 26-item SYMLOG value questionnaires, rating themselves and the values they judged to be effective for a manager. Prior to their participation in the program, sets of ratings were made by the coworkers of each manager, rating the actual values of the manager and the coworkers' ideal profile for the manager. The questionnaire covers three dimensions of values: dominant versus submissive, friendly versus unfriendly, and accepting the task orientation of established authority versus opposing it. Comparisons were made of self and coworkers' ratings on the observed (self/actual) and model (effective/ideal) values of female and male managers with "matched" samples that include only female and male managers with similar ratings of actual values, as judged by their coworkers, by removing the ratings of "outliers". The only significant difference in gender ratings that remains is that female managers rate themselves as more positive. There are more differences between observed and model ratings. Managers and their coworkers believe that model managers should be more dominant and friendly than they are rated to be. However the managers also believe that they should be more task-oriented while their coworkers believe that they should be less task-oriented. The majority of managers dropped from the matched sample because no matching male could be found were more dominant and positive and less task-oriented, thus closer to the stereotype role for females.

Hare, S. E. (1990).
Implications for culture learning and management training: A comparison of Chinese and American work-related value orientations and a study of switcher managers in the Southern California hospitality industry.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Graduate School of Education, University of California, Los Angeles.

SYMLOG ratings were coupled with ethnographic data analysis in a comparative study of Chinese and American managers in the Southern California hospitality industry. Qualities enhancing the managers' abilities to work with a multi­cultural workforce were investigated. Compared with their American counterparts, Chinese managers were found to show in their value orientations greater attention to status differences, greater conformity with authority, less attention to expressive behavior, and greater emphasis on task. Chinese managers were more likely than American to accommodate diversity because they were more situationally responsive than Americans, who tended to assume an externally monitored environment.

Hattink, J. J. A. (1985).
SYMLOG in the classroom.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (2): 176­181.

A Dutch version of the SYMLOG Adjective Rating Form was tested with teachers, student teachers, and pupils in Dutch secondary schools. Only the data from the teachers and student teachers were found to be reliable.

Hattink, J. A., & Hattink, P. B. M. (1988).
Teacher's leadership and pupil's behavior: Influencing the orbital movement.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds). The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 245-268. New York: Praeger.

A case study is presented of one type of difficult student whose behavior is Negative and Backward with suggestions of ways to encourage the students to move to a Positive and Forward position. One approach involves applying UF leadership to first move the student to the NF area to work alone for his or her own learning purpose before moving to the UPF direction. The other strategy is to use UP leadership to first move the student to the PB area to become cheerful and friendly with fellow pupils.

Hentges, M. (1983).
Trainingsfilme fuer Act­Kodierungen in SYMLOG.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A description of the development and application of three video tapes for training in SYMLOG interaction coding.

Herzog, Y. (1982).
Zum Konzept des Images im SYMLOG­Ansatz.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

An exploration of the meaning of "image" in SYMLOG theory.

Hogan, D. B. (1983).
Personality assessment and managerial performance: A comparison of the Behavioral Event Interview, SYMLOG General Behavior Description Form, and other assessment measures in predicting job outcome.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Forty­one mid­level managers in a variety of large U.S. corporations were given a number of standard tests used to predict performance, including the SYMLOG General Behavior Description Form. Each manager's job behavior was also rated on the SYMLOG form by his superiors (usually one or two) and subordinates (usually around five). Managerial success was measured by a combined score based on present position or status in the organization, salary, and past rate of increase in status and salary. The best predictive measure of all those included in the study was the average SYMLOG rating made by the manager's subordinates. (The number of ratings by superiors for each manager was probably much too small to achieve acceptable reliability.) Successful managers were high on dominance, friendliness, and task­orientation, as predicted.

Hogan, D. B. (1988).
The SYMLOG Leadership Profile as a predictor of managerial performance.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds). The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 191-212. New York: Praeger.

Mid-level managers in a variety of large U. S. corporations were given a number of standard tests used to predict performance, including the SYMLOG General Behavior Description Form. Each manager's job behavior was also rated on the SYMLOG form by superiors and subordinates. Managerial success was measured by a combined score based on position and salary increases. The best predictive measure was the SYMLOG rating made by the manager's subordinate. Successful managers were high and evenly balanced on dominance, friendliness, and task-orientation, as predicted.

Holmes, J. (1986).
Beyond the group situation: The political dimension of SYMLOG value-space.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 163-171.

A sample of 1001 Australian adults were classified according to their SYMLOG value scores as either rebels, democrats, conformists, authoritarians, or independents and by membership in Australia's major political parties. Political parties were found to differ in expected ways in the proportions of each political type.

Hosking, D. & Morley, I. (1985).
SYMLOG and leadership effectiveness.
Bulletin of the British Psychological Society 38 (Feb.): 4.

Hoskovec, J. (1982).
SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups.
Ceskoslovenska Psychologie 26 (2): 202.

A review of the 1979 SYMLOG book.

Hurley, J. R. (1991).
Self-acceptance, acceptance of others, and SYMLOG: Equivalent measures of the two central interpersonal dimensions?
Journal of Clinical Psychology 47 (4): 576-582.

After 50 hours of small-group participation during nine weeks, 91 young adults rated each same-group member's conduct on SYMLOG's dimensions of dominance, friendliness, and task-orientation, using the behavior questionnaire. Earlier they made ratings twice, several weeks apart, on separate measures of self-acceptance and acceptance of others. Individuals' mean SYMLOG dominance ratings by group peers correlated highly with aggregated ratings for self-acceptance (.83) while there was no correlation for other-acceptance (.02). SYMLOG friendliness correlated positively with acceptance of others (,85), but not with self-acceptance (.05). Self-ratings yielded parallel, but weaker, associations.

Hutschenreuter, G. (1979).
Verlaufsuntersuchungeiner tationaeren Gruppentherapie mit dem SYMLOG­Verfahren.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A study of the developmental patterns in a therapy group using SYMLOG coding of images.

Ichiyama, M. A. (1988).
Analysis of reflected appraisal using SYMLOG rating data.
International Journal of Small Group Research 4 (2): 181-198.

The causal relationship between self (SE) and perceived (PE) appraisals was examined in a small group field setting. SYMLOG rating data were obtained at two time periods to enable the analysis of reciprocal causal paths in a lagged panel design. Extending a similar investigation by Nowack, cross-lagged regressions were employed to decompose direct and indirect effects in model estimation. The results suggested the selective operation of reflected appraisal (SE-->PE) effects as a function of which SYMLOG dimension was being assessed.

Ichiyama, M. A., & Reddy, B. W. (1987).
Assessment of small group dynamics: The SYMLOG system.
In W. B. Reddy & C. C. Henderson, Jr. (Eds.), Training theory and practice, pp. 185-208. Arlington, VA: NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science. San Diego, CA: University Associates.

A short historical and theoretical overview of SYMLOG is followed by a description of the three dimensional space, the behavior and value rating forms, the Field Diagram and overlay, and current advances and applications.

Isenberg, D. J. (1981).
Individual differences in social­knowledge structures.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

In two studies using university students as subjects (one of 16 subjects and the other of 32) the SYMLOG Behavior Implications Task (BIT) was used to obtain measures of each individual's "social knowledge structure". (The BIT asks the subject to rate each of the 26 behavior descriptors in terms of the other 25, as to their likelihood of being characteristics of the same person.) Individuals were found to have characteristic, idiosyncratic patterns of organizing social information. Some subjects located most descriptors as expected by the SYMLOG three orthogonal dimensional model, but distorted the location of only certain specific behavior descriptors. Other subjects perceived one or more of the dimensions, that is, whole clusters of images, ordinarily orthogonal to each other, as correlated with another; in other words, these subjects "polarized the field" of descriptor images.

Isenberg, D. J. (1986).
Individual differences in social-knowledge structures.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 113-133.

Ratings of specific behavior items were obtained from university students using the SYMLOG Adjective Rating Form. Individuals were found to have characteristic, idiosyncratic patterns of organizing social information.

Isenberg, D. J., & Ennis, J. G. (1981).
Perceiving group members: A comparison of derived and imposed dimensions.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42 (2): 293­305.

Three studies of groups (two university self­analytic groups and one nonacademic research organization) compared two methods for spatially representing the perceived internal structure of small groups. The SYMLOG Adjective Rating Form that imposes three a priori dimensions of interpersonal behavior was compared with ratings based on Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) that derives dimensions based on the perceived similarity of group members. Each of the three studies demonstrated a substantial and statistically significant overlap between the SYMLOG and MDS dimensions.

Isolabella, M. C. (1992).
Cross-cultural comparison of managers' team membership and leadership value orientations.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Graduate Faculty of the School of Human Behavior, United States International University, San Diego.

The relationships between cultural perceptions of effective workteam roles were explored by asking managers in the United States and Italy to rate on SYMLOG questionnaires the values shown by the most effective leaders and members of task-oriented groups they had actually known. With culture as the explanatory variable, Italian and U.S. managers were found to have similar perceptions of effective team members and leaders with respect to values on accepting the task orientation of established authority, but the U.S. managers placed greater emphasis on values on friendliness and less on values on dominance for both leader and member roles. With team role as the explanatory variable, members and leaders were viewed by all respondents as similar in orientation to the task set by established authority, but members were considered to show greater emphasis than leaders on values on friendliness, and less emphasis on the expression of dominance. An interaction effect revealed that U.S. managers regard team members as more like leaders than do Italians. Italian managers tolerate expression of individualism and anti-authoritarianism in leaders, but not in members.

Jaffe, E. D., & Nebebzahl, I. D. (1990).
Group interaction and business game performance.
Simulation & Gaming 21 (2): 133-146.

The effects of cohesiveness and task-orientation are examined at two decision points in teams playing a business game. Field diagrams were based on ratings of team members of each other using the behavior form of the SYMLOG questionnaire. Teams that were more cohesive (Positive, in SYMLOG terms) than task oriented (Forward) at an early stage were more successful.

Jesuino, J. C. (1985).
The assessment of leaders by SYMLOG.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (1): 87­88.

First-year students at the Portuguese Naval Academy (N=52) were rated on the SYMLOG behavior rating form after they had taken part in four-man discussion groups. At the end of the year, summary scores for performance were found to be significantly related to scores on the U­D dimension, and those men who had failed to adapt to military norms and had left the academy, had scores in the D (passive), DB (afraid to try), or DNB (alienated) directions.

Jesuino, J. C. (1988).
The use of SYMLOG in the study of organizational socialization.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds). The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 155-172. New York: Praeger.

In an assessment of leaders, first year students at the Portuguese Naval Academy (N=52) were rated on the SYMLOG behavior rating form after they had taken part in four-man discussion groups. At the end of the year, summary scores for performance were found to be significantly related to scores on the U-D dimension. Those men who failed to adapt to military norms and left the academy had scores in the D (passive), PD (afraid to try), and DNB (alienated) directions.

Kaufman, S. E. (1985).
Patient and Therapist Values Related to Dropout
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, City University of New York.

Prior research has pointed to the relationship between client's dropping out of therapy and several variables. This study investigated the effects that status of patient and therapist values had on the process of dropping out. It was hypothesized that long term commitment would be facilitated by presence of certain personal values in patients and therapists. Secondarily, other factors related to dropping out, such as, ethnicity, age, sex, educational level, marital status, religion and diagnosis, were explored. The results supported the hypotheses that terminated relationships are characterized by certain patient values (patient dominance, goal orientation, achievement, and decisiveness), certain therapist values, (opposition to task oriented behavior) and the interaction between patient and therapist values. Therapist orientation did not change on the two (TOQ Therapist Orientation Questionnaire)administrations during the year.

Kecharananta, N. (1994).
Value Orientations of Thai Managers in Privatizing State Enterprises and the Private Sector
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, United States International University.

This SYMLOG-based research compared the work-related value orientations of Thai managers in state enterprises and the private sector of Thailand. A significant difference was found regarding values on accepting the task orientation of established authority. The current organizational culture of Thai state enterprises was found to display greater emphasis on values of accepting the task orientation of established authority than was evident in the private sector. Greater emphasis on such acceptance was also found in the state enterprises notions of optimal effectiveness for the organization, the reward systems for managers, and optimal individual effectiveness.

Kehoe, L. A. (1988).
The Study of Interpretations of Women’s Behavior and Leadership by Exploring Women’s Expectations, Wishes, and Actual Behavior in Regard to Leadership Among Small Groups of All Women or Women and Men
Unpublished Doctor of Education dissertation, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey.

Perceived inadequacies in research on women's leadership behavior in small groups generated this exploratory study. Attitudes toward women specifically, and matters of general psychological theory, together with women's wishes, expectations and actual behavioral ratings of themselves, other women and men, were examined. SYMLOG Results indicated that women did not rate men and women differently. Group composition was not significant on women's ratings of women. It was not clear whether women were cooperative or competitive toward other women. Age was related to women's behavior. Women who expected to be rated submissively wished to be rated dominantly. Men rated women significantly less positively on friendliness and task-orientation than they rated men. No significant difference was found on leadership ratings between men and women. Dominance was not found to be significant in regard to leadership, rather task-orientation correlated more positively than dominance.

Keller, M. E. (1980).
SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups.
Personnel 57 (2): 78.

A review of the 1979 SYMLOG book.

Kelly, L., & Duran, R. L. (1985).
Interaction and performance in small groups: A descriptive report.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (2): 182­192.

Seven groups of 4 or 5 university students were observed using the SYMLOG Adjective Rating Form, and their work on group projects was judged. The high performance groups were found to have a clear task leader, were fairly cohesive but contained some diversity on the SYMLOG dimensions, and reflected relatively equal participation of members. Some low groups appeared to be extremely cohesive with regard to their position in the SYMLOG space but had no task leader. Other low performance groups were polarized, also without a task leader.

Kelly, L., & Duran, R. L. (1986).
A replication of Parke and Houben's study of group types.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 186-196.

Twenty-two task groups of college students (of 2 to 6 members) rated each other on the SYMLOG adjective rating form. Using Parke and Houben's (1985) method of classifying groups, 18 group were classified as unified. Suggestions are provided for revising the system for use with groups with fewer members.

Kemoli, P. W. (1998).
Perceptions of Kenyan Professional Women with Respect to Experienced Stress and Social Support
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, United States International University.

This study measured the perceptions of Kenyan professional women with respect to stress and social support along with the influence of network orientation, (i.e., utilization of social support) on the relationship. The relationship between the level of team orientation within the women's organizations and stress, is also addressed. SYMLOG statistical analysis revealed that women who experienced high social support and low stress rated their organizational culture as being friendly and open and less task-oriented, on more occasions than women who experienced low social support and high stress.

Keyton, J. (1987).
An Examination of the Compatibility and Effectiveness of Self-selected Small Task Groups
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University.

While there has been an abundance of small group research, little attention has been paid to those small groups which have had the opportunity to self-select their group members. This research study examines: the self-selection process and identifies the criteria used in group member selection; group compatibility using Schutz's FIRO-B methodology; group interaction over time using Bales' self-report SYMLOG measure; group compatibility as an independent variable for cohesiveness, satisfaction, and task outcome; and, group interaction as an independent variable for task outcome. Findings indicate that some individuals can self-select themselves into compatible groups and that the selection process is interactive or based on observing interaction of others. Physical appearance did not have significant impact on the selection process. Data also indicate that group members' perceptions of group interaction do vary over time and reflect greater variation in perceptions on the SYMLOG dimensions rather than directional shifts.

Keyton, J. (1988).
Comment on Evans and Dion: Still more on group cohesion.
Small Group Research 23 (2): 237-241.

Evans and Dion (1991) had surveyed literature about the relation of performance with group cohesiveness and found an overall positive relationship. Keyton warns that polarization or unification, as measured by SYMLOG ratings, may not be associated with cohesion if the group members are perceived to be clustered on the Negative side of the space as a result of intragroup conflict.

Keyton, J., & Springston, J. (1990).
Redefining cohesiveness in groups.
Small Group Research 21 (2): 234-254.

Assessed the relationship of group member perceptions of group interaction to group effectiveness (GE) among 248 university students, using L. Kelly and R. L. Duran's (1985) original SYMLOG method and alternative operations of group cohesion. Ss formed groups to develop and present 2 presentations on group communication topics, and met 13 times to prepare for the presentations. Data were collected over 3 of the work sessions. Findings suggest that perceived similarity may not always align with perceptions of cohesiveness and a factor other than cohesiveness accounts for GE.

Kirschenbaum, J. (1982).
Promoting the Experience of Cooperation among Students in Classroom Learning Groups through Goal Structuring and Positive Reframing
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Fordham University.

The study investigated the effectiveness of three incentive methods, cooperative goal structure, individual goal structure, and positive reframing, in promoting the experience of cooperation among students in classroom learning groups. The results of the analyses performed on the students' responses to the questionnaires revealed that positive reframing in combination with cooperative or individual goal structure facilitated the experience of intragroup cooperation among students to a greater extent than did either cooperative or individual goal structure alone. Contrary to expectations, the pattern of experiences of the students in the four conditions did not follow an orderly sequence of stage development as described by previous researchers. In the present study, no pattern of stage development could be identified.

Klimekfritzges, T. (1981).
"SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups " and "SYMLOG Case study kit with instructions for a group self study."
Personnel Psychology 34 (1): 201­203.

Reviews of the SYMLOG text and the Case Study Kit.

Koenigs, R. J., & Cowen, M. A. (1988).
SYMLOG as action research.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 61-87. New York: Praeger.

The development of the SYMLOG Consulting Group's program in training and consultation is described, with examples of some of the displays used in presenting the theory.

Kohler, A. (1980).
Programme zur Aufarbeitung und Auswertung von SYMLOG­Daten.
Arbeiten der FR Psychologie der Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken, Nr. 71.

Presents computer programs for handling SYMLOG data.

Kohler, A. (1986).
Seven years with SYMLOG: A review of research.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (1): 83­89.

A review of research on SYMLOG in Germany (1977­1986).

Kolber, R. (1984).
Struktur und Inhaltsanalyse von Selbstkonzeptgitter. Ein Vergleich zwischen Alkoholikern und Studenten.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A comparison of the self­concepts of alcoholic patients with a non­alcoholic group of students.

Korzilius, C. (1981).
Zur Beziehung zwischen Selbstkonzept und sozialem Verhalten in einer studentischen Selbstanalysegruppe.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A study of the relationship between self­concept and social behavior in academic SYMLOG groups.

Koster­Seidl, M., & Muennich, S. (1985).
Selbstkonzept und soziales Umfeld von Alkohol­und Heroinabhaengigen.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A description of the self-concepts of alcoholics and drug addicts.

Kressel, N. J. (1987).
SYMLOG and behavior therapy: Pathway to expanding horizons.
Small Group Behavior 2 (1): 83-89.

The author suggests that SYMLOG is useful for both individual behavior therapy and behavior therapy in groups. In addition, SYMLOG may be used to facilitate social psychological comparisons between the methodologies of various orientations to therapy.

Kriger, M. R., & Barnes, L. B. (1988).
Executive leadership networks: Top management group dynamics in a high-performance organization.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds). The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 173-190. New York: Praeger.

A four-year study of a top management team (geographically dispersed) was conducted using many methods including SYMLOG behavior and value ratings of the managers of each other, as well as act-by-act of some meetings. The images of top management ranged over the PF quadrant with a mild tendency for managers in the lighter fabricating part of the business to polarize with relation to those in the heavy industrial parts (the latter, further toward the F vector) with the Chief Executive Officer mediating between the two clusters, quite dominant, and historically the mentor of many of the others. He was the main node of a network of mentors and protégés that the authors regard as part of the "deep structure" necessary to explain the paradoxical success of this company. The authors conclude that a field theory approach to the internal dynamic processes is needed to go beyond the "surface structure" analysis of currently popular books on corporate excellence.

Kroeger, F., Drinkmann, A., Herzog, W., & Petzold, E. (1991).
Family diagnostics: Object representation in families with eating disorders.
Small Group Research 22 (1): 99-114.

In clinical work with families with eating disorders, SYMLOG behavior questionnaires are used to document family interactional and perceptual processes and to make them accessible for therapeutic purposes and evaluations. For a set of 26 families with a daughter with anorexia a decision vacuum exists. The findings confirm the descriptive results from clinical practice and also that the parents' incorrect mutual perceptions have an effect on the daughter's perceptions.

Kroeger, F., Drinkmann, A., Schneide. J., Schmidtr., M., & Petzold, E. (1989).
Family diagnostics: Standardized methods of systematic therapy: SYMLOG as possible bridging.
Gruppenpsyc 25 (2): 110-126.

Kuehn, S. A. (1987).
Charting Judgments of Competence: A Test of a Model of Communication Competence in Small Group Interaction
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University.

The purpose of this study was to test the notion that communication competence exists in the naturalistic judgment of communication behavior and to determine if behavioral outcomes are related to perceptions of competence. The SYMLOG methodology was adapted to construct a measure of group discussion behaviors. The results of the study indicated that respondents judged the behavior of fellow group members, but judgment was inconsistent and thus unreliable. This led to the conclusion that communication competence judgment was not the focus of behavioral evaluation within the sample groups. Attitudes, rather than communication competence standards, were speculated to have formed the basis of respondents' standards of judgment.

Kutner, S. S. (1984).
"SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups" and "SYMLOG case study kit."
Social Work With Groups 7 (1): 99­102.

Reviews of the SYMLOG text and Case Study Kit.

Kutner, S. S., & Kirsch, R. D. (1985).
Clinical applications of SYMLOG: A graphic system of observing relationships.
Journal of the National Association of Social Workers 30 (6): 497­503.

An introduction to SYMLOG for social workers, stressing its value for communication of complex process issues in a client group to persons outside the client system in clinical training, supervision, and consultation, for record keeping and progress reports, for enhancing insight into individual and group dynamics in therapy, and especially for enhancing the clinician's use of self by highlighting issues of identification, transference, and countertransference.

Kutner, S. S., & Kirsch, R. D. (1988).
Enhancement of professional performance in clinical settings through the use of self ratings.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 89-98. New York: Praeger.

SYMLOG self scores are applied to clinical practice with regard to two issues: professional growth in self-awareness and effectiveness as a change agent.

Kutner, S. S., Kirsch, R. D., & Cournoyer, D. E. (1989).
The impact of the therapist's family of origin on work with client systems.
International Journal of Small Group Research 5 (2): 188-200.

The SYMLOG system was used to explore the relationship between the therapist's family of origin interaction and client system interaction. Forty social work students rated their families of origin and 50 client systems using SYMLOG questionnaires for specific behavior descriptions. From a potential pool of 132 correlations, 17 significant correlations were found. Measures of polarization incongruence and perceptions of outcome in client systems were correlated with various aspects of family of origin interaction.

Lang, W. (1982).
A factor analytic study of selected group­relevant personality traits.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Department of Educational Psychology, The University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Compares tests drawn from the work of Bales, Bion, Eysenck, Plutchik, and Schutz, along with the author's tests of socio­biologically based traits. Results gave some encouragement for further work on a six factor test. Subjects were 84 male and 84 female students drawn from a technical institute, community college, and university.

Lawrence, H. V. (1992).
The effects of training in feedback on managers' attributional bias and perceived effectiveness of their work groups.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation in Adult and Continuing Education/Human Resources Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Managers of work groups of 5-10 persons in a large municipal government rated their subordinates using the SYMLOG questionnaires. Managers who were given training in feed back changed the perceptions of their work groups in the direction of more dominance and more friendliness. They also blamed subordinates less in problem situations and increased the use of some feedback skills.

Lessel, F. (1984).
Synchronisationsanalyse der Leiter­Mitglieder­Interaktion in SYMLOG­Gruppen.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

Describes a new scoring system for the study of Member­to­Leader relationships in academic SYMLOG Groups.

Lilli, W. (1986).
Vonden Schwierigkeiteneiner systematischen Gruppenbeobachtung.
Zeitschriftfuer Socialpsychologie 17 (1): 55­59.

A review of the German translation of the 1979 SYMLOG book.

Lion, C. L.; & Gruenfeld, L. W. [Cornell Univ.; New York State Sch. Ind. & Labor Relat., Dept. Org. Behav., Ithaca, NY 14853]. (1993).
The behavior and personality of work group and basic assumption group members.
Small group research, 24(2), 236-257.

The purpose of this study was to examine and predict individual work and non-work behavior in groups, based on the personality of the individual. Personality was defined in terms of Bales's SYMLOG character types. Work and non-work behavior were conceptualized in terms of the Bion work group and basic assumption groups. Intelligence and gender were used as control variables. It was expected that group members observed to be task oriented and emotionally controlled, in SYMLOG terms, would be in a work group mode. The subjects in the study were participants in four academic self-study groups. Factor analysis was used to create scales describing work and non-work activity. Scores on these scales were correlated with scores generated from SYMLOG Observations, SYMLOG Retrospective Ratings, the Culture Fair Intelligence Test, and the gender of the participants. The results of this study strongly supported the hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between work activity as defined by Bion and the SYMLOG character type of task orientation/emotional control. There were also a number of significant relationships between the various basic assumption groups modes and other SYMLOG dimensions. These results suggest that it is possible to systematically code and predict work and non-work activity in groups based on the personality of the individuals involved. Implications for further research are explored.

Lion. C. L. (1996).
Personality and Self-selection into Various Job Facets: A Longitudinal Study
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University.

The main purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal relationship between personality and job-facet choice. The question in this study was: Do people with similar dispositions (personalities) choose similar jobs? "Jobs," in this case, referred to measurable facets of any work position, rather than to "occupations," in which the job description might vary from situation to situation. The major finding in this study was that there was a longitudinal, causal relationship between personality and job-facet choice. A number of the specific predictions were as expected. Gender was not as useful as personality in predicting job-facet choice. The observational method for measuring personality traits was somewhat more useful than the self-report method, but the results did not strongly differentiate between the two methods. Despite the fact that many of the results were as predicted, not all of the variance was accounted for, and therefore, additional methodological and theoretical issues were identified that could be examined in future research.

Lobel, M. (1982).
The effects of amphetamine and methaqualone on human social interaction.
Unpublished Honors thesis, Psychology and Social Relations, Harvard University.

Male and female recreational drug users between the ages of 18 and 36 were recruited to take part in eight six-person groups, each observed for three task-oriented discussions. Before each session the subjects received a low or high dose of a drug, or a placebo treatment. For 4 groups the drug used was amphetamine, a stimulant, and for the other four groups the drug was methaqualone, a sedative. Observers coded the interaction during the sessions using SYMLOG codes and subjects and observers filled out SYMLOG ratings after the sessions. Subjects were able to detect the increased dominance in their behavior caused by amphetamine, but incorrectly associated this with an increase in friendliness and instrumental control. Subjects were aware of being perceived as less friendly following methaqualone administration, although they believed that the drug did not affect the friendliness of their behavior. Methaqualone was incorrectly thought by subjects to increase dominance.

Lobel, S. A. (1984).
Effects of a sojourn in the United States: A SYMLOG content analysis of in­depth interviews.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

The stereotypes and values held by 21 Scandinavian visitors to the United States were assessed by a content analysis using SYMLOG categories of a series of in­depth interviews obtained during and after the sojourn. After their return home the sojourners came to perceive the opportunity structure of American Society more favorably and that of Scandinavian Society less favorably. The sojourners consistently valued the material wealth of American Society, but during the sojourn, they expressed dislike for the atmosphere of competition. They also consistently valued the perceived ambitiousness and outgoingness of American people, though found some Americans to be superficial and insensitive.

Lobel, S. A. (1988).
A SYMLOG content analysis of in-depth interviews: Perceptions of Scandinavian visitors to the United States.
International Journal of Small Group Research 4 (2): 123-141.

SYMLOG coding was used for content analysis of in-depth interviews obtained from Scandinavian exchange students and scholars in the United States. The 21 persons were interviewed shortly after arrival, one year later prior to departure, and after they had returned home. Subjects' values for self (PRO-in SELF) and society (PRO-in-SOCIETY) and perceptions of home and host country and people were coded and represented in Field Diagrams. The SYMLOG data preserved the richness of the in-depth interview and were useful for statistical analysis of the effects of the sojourn upon the visitors' attitudes and values.

Loehle, B. (1982).
Die Operationalisierung des Wertkonzeptes bei Bales und Rokeach. Ein theoretischer und empirischer Vergleich.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A comparison of the methods used by Bales and Rokeach for the study of values. Instrumental values and end values on Rokeach's form were coded into locations in the SYMLOG space by trained coders. It appears that the values studied by Rokeach are all on the Positive side of the SYMLOG space. (It would not be possible to measure polarization using them.)

Lustig, M. W. (1983).
SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups.
Quarterly Journal of Speech 69 (2): 226­227.

A review of the 1979 SYMLOG book.

Lustig, M. W. (1987).
Bales's interpersonal rating forms: Reliability and dimensionality.
Small Group Behavior 18 (1): 99-107.

Three versions of the 26-item rating form were given to 266 volunteer subjects in a university course. From a preliminary factor analysis of the 78 items, the 23 items with the highest loadings were reanalyzed. Although Lustig expected to find three major factors, he found six. Each factor represented one pole of the three SYMLOG dimensions: dominant, submissive, positive, negative, conforming, and expressive.

McLeod, P. L. (1985).
The impact of attitudes and social cognition on interpersonal conflict in small groups.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

For an experiment, 148 university students were observed in discussion in same sex dyads. The way in which each subject polarized the value space in the plane of the SYMLOG Field Diagram (P, N, F, B) was assessed in advance using a short form of the Value Implications Task (VIT). The specific attitudes of each subject about the specific persons and images in cases used for discussion were also measured in advance. Each subject was paired with another subject whose way of polarizing the value space ("cognitive structure") was the same or different. Cross-cutting this factor, the pairs had either the same or different attitudes about the specific persons or images in the case the pair discussed. Regardless of whether the two subjects polarized the space in a similar or opposite way, there was more conflict between pairs whose attitudes were different. It appears that the specific attitudes give better predictions of conflict on specific images in discussion than do the general measure of values of the short form VIT. However, the adequacy of the short form of the VIT was called into question.

McQuade, J. T. (1983).
A comparison of interaction in single­parent and intact families.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Fordham University.

No difference was found between self-ratings on the three SYMLOG dimensions for single­parent and married mothers. However observers' ratings indicated that single­parent mothers were more Negative. Observers' act­by­act scoring of behavior indicated that single­parent mothers were more Upward, Negative, and Forward.

Mariani, E. U. (1997).
American and Italian Engineering Student's Images of a Most Effective Leader and Member Based on the SYMLOG Model
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri.

The SYMLOG model was used to measure the perceptions of 172 American and 237 Italian upper-level engineering students from Washington University and the University of Rome, with respect to the values of most effective leaders and members of goal-oriented teams. The research methodology determined that the two groups differ with respect to the acceptance of task-oriented authority (F- B dimension), with American students showing a greater level of authority acceptance than Italians for both leadership and membership. The findings will be of value to engineering managers and educators in improving the leadership and membership performance of young engineers and engineering students serving on cross-cultural teams.

Matheson, W. (1972).
An independent validation of Bales's concept of "Socialpsychological space".
Alberta Journal of Educational Research.

Each member of four training groups of university students (total N=48) was asked to rate self, trainer, and other group members on six occasions during the life of the group using the assessment questions employed by Bales in his self­analytic group course prior to the development of SYMLOG proper. In general, the results support the concepts of the group space as described by Bales, although Upward ratings were associated with Negative ratings and Downward ratings with Positive ratings.

Maxwell, R. A.; Lundgren, D. C.; & Lansky, L. M. [c/o Lundgren, Dept. Psychology, Univ. Cincinnati, OH 45221]. (1996).
Maternal Role Behavior and Androgyny: A Comparison of Divorced and Married Mothers.
Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 25, 3-4, 61-68.

Draws on SYMLOG (Systematic Multilevel Observation of Groups) behavior rating & Bem Sex Role Inventory data collected via mail survey by 164 married & 20 singles divorced mothers of US college students to determine if divorced mothers would describe their family roles as more dominant, unfriendly, & instrumental than married mothers. Divorced mothers were also expected to describe themselves as androgynous, while married mothers would describe themselves as feminine. Contrary to the hypotheses, married & divorced mothers tended to have feminine gender identities.

Mays, C. M., & Poumadere, M. (1989).
Decentralizing risk analysis in large engineered systems: An approach to articulating technical and socio-organizational dimensions of system performance.
Risk Analysis 9 (4) :453-461.

A program of applied research was carried out in a nuclear power production facility in France. The aim was to increase across-plant work structure, knowledge and control of the interactions between technical and organizational factors. Data consisting of social representations of current attitudes in the plant, safety rules and procedures, and cooperation in work relations were collected using the French translation of the SYMLOG value questionnaire. Feedback was given on field diagrams. Direct involvement of the total plant population, transfer of analytic tools, methodological continuity, interactive elaboration of data, coordination of different levels of findings with operations, follow-up and feedback of measured change, are the main features of this decentralized risk analysis process. Improvement observed in safety performance paralleled changes in measured social representations.

Mays, C. [SYMLOG Inst., Cachan, France]. (1990).
Metoda skupinoveho vyuziti udaju (elaborace) v komplexnim systemu: pripad bezpecneho jednani v jaderne elektrarne [Group elaboration in the complex systems: The vase of safety practices in nuclear power plant] [Trans. S. Stech)].
Psychologie v Ekonomicke Praxi, 25(2), 87-99.

Discusses the design, application, and assessment of an intervention aimed at preventing accidents and improving worker safety at a French nuclear power plant over a 2-year period. R. Bales and S. Cohen's (1979) system for the multiple level observation of groups was used to study organizational values at the plant.

Merlo, M. C. G., Schwallbach, H., & Kroeger, F. (1991).
Changes in social perception during family therapy of young schizophrenics.
Small Group Research 22 (1): 124-135.

During systematic family therapy of young schizophrenics, changes in social perception and perceived family environment were investigated using the SYMLOG behavior rating form and a German modification of the Family Environment Scale. After one year of therapy there was greater consensus among family members in perceptions of the behavior of the index patient on the three SYMLOG dimensions. However, there were almost no changes in the reciprocal perceptions of fathers and mothers or in perceptions of the shared family environment.

Metzger, U. (1982).
Veraenderung des Selbstkonzepts und der Personwahrnehmung durch eine Ausbildung bei der Telefonseelsorge.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

An investigation of the effects of training lay helpers in client­centered method on the self­concept.

Morgan, W. R. (1975).
Bales's role theory: An attribution theory interpretation.
Sociometry 38 (4): 429­444.

SYMLOG ratings were made by 95 participants in 5 self­analytic groups of university students. A factor analysis of their ratings gave evidence of both attributional and functional processes.

Mueller, G. (1984).
Die Gruppenentwicklung und die soziale Kompetenz desGruppenmitgliedes -- systemtheoretisch betrachtet. Eine Aufarbeitung systemtheoretischer Literatur (besonders auch ausserpsychologischer Herkunft) und deren Bewertung in Hinblick auf das SYMLOG­Gruppenkonzept.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A system theoretical conceptualization of group development in relation to the SYMLOG approach.

Navarre, D. (1981).
Posture sharing in the interview diad.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.

Two male and two female interviewers were trained to assume postural mirroring and neutral movement positions while interacting with male and female subjects (N=76). After the interview subjects filled out a scale measuring rapport and the SYMLOG checklist for their own behavior. Postural mirroring was positively related both to subject's rating of rapport and to willingness to return to the interview. However traditional gender stereotypes of greater dominance for males and greater emotional expressiveness were not found.

Neal, M. L. (1998).
The Relationship between Work Group Values and Overall Performance
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, United States International University.

The study investigated the relationship between work group values and overall performance of the work group. Twenty work groups (called Programs), comprised of 157 employees of an organization, were given the SYMLOG rating form to evaluate the values held and shown by the group. A measurement tool developed and used by the organization was administered by the researcher to evaluate the work groups' (Programs') performance. The findings moderately supported the assertion that the values held by the work group effect the overall performance of the work group in completing its tasks efficiently and with high quality.

Nowak, W. (1987).
SYMLOG as an instrument of "internal" and "external" perspective taking: Construct validation and temporal change.
International Journal of Small Group Research 3 (2): 180-197.

The author reports that self-perception and anticipated impression are correlated, indicating that both represent facets of "the self."

Nowak, I., & Scharpf, U. (1985).
Analysen des Interaktionsprozesses im protagonistzentrierten Psychodrama ­- Eine explorative Beobachtungstudie mit SYMLOG.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet Konstanz.

A study of three psychodrama groups by their two leaders, who scored videotapes of the role­play portions. Data on behavior and images are presented which indicate great sensitivity of the method to differences of imagery in different phases and episodes. It is concluded that the method is well suited to the presentation of feedback to participants.

Nye, J. L., & Forsyth, D. R. (1991).
The effects of prototype-based biases on leadership appraisals: A test of leadership categorization theory.
Small Group Research 22 (3): 360-379.

Leadership categorization theory suggests that leaders who display characteristics and abilities that match the observers' schematic conception of an effective leader will be more favorably evaluated than leaders who violate observers' leadership prototypes. In a test of this model, 92 male and 84 female subjects endorsing a number of different leadership prototypes, as measured by a short form of the SYMLOG behavior questionnaire, were instructed to evaluate a male and female leader who acted in a task-oriented or socio-emotionally-oriented manner. In rating leader effectiveness, subjects showed a clear bias in favor of leaders who matched their particular prototypes (high or low on dominance or friendliness or a control type), although males tended to base their ratings on prototypes more so than females. In ratings of leader collegiality, however, prototype-based biases were noted only when subjects evaluated female leaders. These ratings were not always consistent with the predictions of leadership categorization theory. These findings suggest that biases against female leaders may stem, in part, from the incongruity between subordinates' leadership prototypes and stereotypical conceptions of men and women.

Okuda, T.; & Ito, T. (1991).
[Japanese improved version of SYMLOG: Simple rating items for grasping small group structure].
Japanese Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31(2), 167-174.

Conducted a study in which simple rating items of the System for the Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG) by R. F. Bales and S. P. Cohen (1979) were made for use with Japanese Ss and were tested. Human Ss: Normal Japanese adults (undergraduate students). 18 items were made, and their validity was tested through factor analysis of ratings of Simulated Society (W. A. Gammson, 1978) interaction. Further factor analysis of 12 items extracted from the remade items was performed.

Orlik, P. (1978).
A two­component formula for transforming SYMLOG interaction scoring data.
Unveroeffentlichtes Manuskript. FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

An alternative to the formula presented by Swann and Polley in the 1979 SYMLOG text for obtaining locations of images on the field diagram from the raw interaction frequency scores.

Orlik, P. (1986).
The self­concept as a vector subsystem in the social life space.
International Journal of Small Group Behavior 2 (1): 18­32.

A case study illustrating the simultaneous change of both the self­concept and the perception of others during psychotherapy. Methods used were 1) recording of client's interpersonal judgments by grid­technique and 2) SYMLOG coding of client's self descriptions.

Orlik, P. (1987).
Ein semantischer Atlas zur Kodierung alltaggssprachlicher Verhaltensbeschreibungen nach dem SYMLOG Raummodell.
International Journal of Small Group Behavior 3 (1): 88-111.

This semantical atlas in German with SYMLOG directional codes can be used as an aid to the classification of behavior descriptions.

Orlik, P. (1989).
SYMLOG: Another new look in the coming years: Or, the long road to theory-guided research.
Gruppend-Z 20 (2): 221-241.

Orlik, P., & Becker, R. (1980).
Ein alternatives Modell zur Berechnung individuellerWahrnehmungsabweichungen bei SYMLOG­Daten.
Arbeiten der FR Psychologie der Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken, Nr. 66.

An alternative mathematical formula for investigating individual biases of group members.

Orlik, P., & Schneider, J. F. (1977).
Interaktionsdiagnostik. Ein Rahmenkonzept zum Training der diagnostischen Kompetenz von Beobachtern sozialer Interaktionen.
Arbeiten der FR Psychologie der Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken, Nr. 43. In L. Schmidt (Hg.), Lehrbuch der klinischen Psychologie, pp. 280­305, 1978; 2. Aufl., 1984: pp. 190­205. Stuttgart: Enke.

Presents a general frame of reference for training the diagnostic skills of observers. SYMLOG is part of the training program.

Orlik, P., & Schneider, J. F. (1981).
On SYMLOG: Second interview with Robert F. Bales.
Arbeiten der FR Psychologie der Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken, Nr. 72.

Second interview of the German SYMLOG translators with R. F. Bales, dealing with theoretical aspects of SYMLOG.

Orlik, P., & Schneider, J. F. (1989).
SYMLOG (Systematic-Multiple-Level-Observation-of-Groups): Theory guided observation of groups (Editorial).
Gruppend-Z 20 (3): 219-220.

Osentoski, M. A. (1994).
A Comparison of Family Interactions Between Violent and Nonviolent Juvenile Offenders
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Toledo.

The primary purpose for this study was to compare the family interactions of violent and nonviolent juvenile delinquents. A sample of 119 delinquents was utilized. Dependent variables were the scores on the two Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales II (FACES II) dimensions of cohesion and adaptability; and the scores on the Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG) dimensions of dominant/submissive, unfriendly/friendly, and controlled/emotional. Based on the results of the statistical analyses, an empirical difference was found between the offenders' parent's scores on the SYMLOG dimension of unfriendly/friendly. There were no other empirical differences found between the violent and nonviolent juvenile offenders on the other dimensions of either FACES II or SYMLOG. An important finding from this study is that family interactions does not differentiate violent from nonviolent juvenile offenders.

Ostmann, A. (1992).
On the relationship between formal conflict structure and the social field.
Small Group Research 23 (1): 26-48.

A growing tradition in analyzing bargaining behavior uses an experimental setup to provide instruments to control the parameters of the underlying conflict. Game theory is used to model the conflict, to analyze the possible actions of the agents and the arguments that might be used within the bargaining process, and to understand the results of the bargaining. Especially in face-to-face bargaining, we find a large variance in the results within a given class of situations (even when the same game is used). It is a major task of bargaining research to explain this variance. This article describes a trial using the SYMLOG concepts of the social field to allow for consideration of social forces that may critically influence the possible development of agreement. The three behavioral dimensions of the field are measured by a questionnaire of 104 adjectives, a subset of Orlik's semantic atlas.

Ostmann, A. [Univ. Bielefeld, Inst. Math. Econ., D-4800 Bielefeld, Germany]. (1996).
Representing interactional judgments in multilateral bargaining—SYMLOG scores, Orlik clusters, and behavioral variation.
Small Group Research, 27(3), 450-470.

In face-to-face bargaining. one usually finds a large variety of actions that are not explainable and sometimes not even compatible with the usual rationality assumptions of the actors. it is widely accepted that bounded rationality approaches are more appropriate for such settings. Most bounds to rationality refer to how the situation and the partners are perceived by the actor. Two crucial components of such a perception and judgement are conceptualized as processing aspirations and the social field. Ostmann reported on the use of the social field concept and on a first trial to explain bargaining results by aspirations and the social field; Another paper explored aspiration processing in a more detailed way. This article deals with questions of how nonstandard measures for the social field concept can be used successfully to explain or predict fundamental processes in face-to-face bargaining.

Otis, D. B. (1984).
The Effect of Leadership on Small Group Communication
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Hofstra University.

Rigorous studies of communication and leadership began early in the twentieth century. Research devoted to these topics is extensive but has not been integrated into a single, all encompassing theory. The present analysis attempted to integrate these two constructs utilizing a management simulation. A strong positive relationship was demonstrated between group communication and average group performance. Individual communication measures were also significantly related to individual performance. SYMLOG proved to be a useful technique for discriminating between leaders and nonleaders. Leaders were significantly more dominant and task-oriented than their nonleader constituents. This was especially noteworthy since the SYMLOG ratings were independent of leadership designation.

Palmerino, M. B. (1987).
An exploratory study of perceptual unification and polarization in SYMLOG.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Department of Psychology, Harvard University.

A detailed statistical analysis of the mid­term and end­of­term SYMLOG ratings for both behavior and values of five self-analytic groups of university students. Finds evidence that there is a tendency for a given member to bias his or her ratings of other members in the way expected by the theory of polarization­unification, that is, the rater tends to draw the image of the other closer to his or her own WISH image (if the image of the other is close enough to the rater's WISH image), or toward the rater's REJ image (if the image of the other is close enough to the REJ image). These unifying and polarizing biases are measured by displacements of the rater's location of the group member's image from the group average location of that member's image.

Parke, B. K. (1985).
A field adaptation to the SYMLOG adjective rating form suitable for children.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (1): 89­95.

A simplified field adaptation of the SYMLOG Adjective Rating Form was constructed and tested in 96 grade school and junior high school classrooms, where teachers were raters, and in 50 families, where both children and adults were both rated and raters.

Parke, B. K., & Houben, H. C. (1985).
An objective analysis of group types.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (2): 131­149.

Ninety­six teachers from 6-grade schools and 1 junior high school rated each child in their class using Parke's adaptation of the SYMLOG rating form. The analysis of the field diagrams gave primary importance to the relative positions of the images in the plane of the Field Diagram (P, N, F, B) using dominance ratings as statistical weights. Three main types of groups were found: Unified, Polarized, and Fragmented. Four intermediate types were also found: Unified with Non­attracting Outlyer, Tending to Polarize, Scapegoated, and Tending to Fragment. Statistics on the number of each type, and cutting points used, are also included.

Parke, B. K., & Houben, H. C. (1988a).
Analyses of subgroups and clusterings within groups: Attaining knowledge of the social interaction potential.
International Journal of Small Group Research 4 (2): 143-158.

Subgroups, behavioral clusters, and coalitions, on a SYMLOG Field Diagram, can be studied by the group programming method. Previous attempts at this type of study have depended upon the mathematical formalism of cluster analysis. Severe shortcomings of this method are apparent: while there is a straight forward measure of distance in the diagram plane (P-N and F-B), the dominance dimension appears to be qualitatively different and it is desirable to consider all three dimensions simultaneously. A method of characterizing probable clusters within a group is based on the statistical moment description of the group (Potential Theory).

Parke, B. K., & Houben, H. C. (1988b).
A rationale and mathematically justifiable method for group diagram expansions.
International Journal of Small Group Research 4 (2): 169-179.

A mathematical explanation is given for the clustering tendency based on the statistical properties of SYMLOG group diagrams. A simple arithmetic step-by-step worksheet is presented for the calculation of expansion multipliers.

Parke, B. K., & Houben, H. C. (1988c).
The group diagramming method in the classroom.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds). The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 213-244. New York: Praeger.

A SYMLOG group diagramming method is used in consultation with school teachers. A number of classroom practices are described that help achieve a unified group and prevent a polarized group. Examples are provided for groups with different degrees of unification and polarization.

Pflum, G. D. (1982).
The effect of conflict, quality, and time on information use and small group behavior in evaluative decision­making situations.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.

Eighty­nine graduate students in education took part in role playing simulations of school board members making decisions about educational programs. The problems to be discussed varied in the amount of conflict, quality of program, and time allowed to assess the effects of the group's decision. All groups wanted more information and more time and were judged by observers to be Forward on the SYMLOG dimensions.

Polley, R. B. (1979).
Both sides of the mirror: Small groups and subjectivity.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Members of five self­analytic groups of university students rated each other using the SYMLOG behavior rating form, and were observed using the SYMLOG scoring system. Overt behavior between pairs of persons was found to be unique to the relationship, and not simply predictable from a general tendency of either persons to give or receive behavior of a given kind. Persons who made positive ratings of another were likely to receive positive ratings in return. The same was true for negative ratings. Solidarity was expressed in overt behavior of members of the majority subgroup addressing each other, when the total group was polarized, especially if the polarization was along the Positive­Negative dimension. This expression of subgroup solidarity tended to fade out as the location of the subgroup rotated from the P vector of the field toward the F vector. Behavior of the majority subgroup toward minority members was variable ­­ sometimes Positive, sometimes Positive turning to Negative, sometimes Negative.

Polley, R. B. (1983).
Dimensions of political reality.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 13 (1): 66­77.

Fifty university students completed Eysenck's inventory of social attitudes, self­ratings of political liberalism or conservatism, measures of their positions on specific political issues, and measures of their locations in the SYMLOG value space. With two reservations, Bales's initial assumptions concerning the isomorphism of the image or value level of SYMLOG and the Eysenck space of values and political ideology were confirmed. First, conservatism was more strongly linked to self­interest and concern for material success and power than to conventionality. Second, the two dimensions of the Eysenck space were correlated. It is suggested that, while the structure of attitudes and values may remain constant, the correlations between dimensions can be used as an indication of primary and secondary polarizations in attitudes and values and that these polarizations may well reflect the political structure of the specific context. Implications for the analysis of issue polarization and policy formation are discussed, as are several points of comparison between the two systems.

Polley, R. B. (1984).
Subjectivity in issue polarization.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology 14 (5): 426­450.

Twenty­six female and 24 male undergraduates (median age 23 years) completed a questionnaire designed to measure attitudes on questions concerning abortion, nuclear disarmament, protection of endangered species, alternative energy funding, Helsinki Accords, immigration law, neutron bomb development, privacy protection, compensation for victims of crime, and assimilation of Vietnam refugees. Using a "phantom other" technique, the locations in SYMLOG's 3­space of values for polar stands on these controversial issues were measured. There was a high rate of agreement on these locations, despite great diversity of opinion on the issues themselves. Subjectivity in locations is explained by K. Lewin's (1951) theory of vectors of attraction and repulsion. Subjects tended to draw toward their global favored (PRO) locations those stands with which they agreed. For example, a Subject who opposed abortion on demand would draw toward his or her PRO location the image of "opposes abortion on demand." Subjectivity in issue polarization seemed to be organized around attraction to and repulsion from the PRO location without regard to the individual's global opposed (CON) location.

Polley, R. B. (1985a).
A general theory of polarization and unification.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (2): 150­161.

A general theory of polarization and unification is presented along with a computer algorithm for determining subgroup structure and specifying the nature and severity of the polarizations within the group. Earlier models such as Gamson's theory of coalition formation, the risky-shift phenomenon, Grofman's model of protocoalition formation in ideological n­space, and the SYMLOG theory of group polarization are held to be special cases of a more general theory.

Polley, R. B. (1985b).
The diagnosis of intact work groups.
Consultation 4 (4): 273-283.

A SYMLOG-based method for the diagnosis of intact work groups is presented and illustrated. The diagnosis makes use of indexes based on three characteristics of the group: degree of polarization, diversity of available resources, and description of the average member relative to a "most effective member" standard.

Polley, R. B. (1986).
Rethinking the third dimension.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 134-40.

On the basis of a finding that in many ratings SYMLOG items tend to cluster along a PF-NB diagonal, Polley suggests revising some of Bales's items. (His argument is countered in Bales, Koenigs, & Roman, 1987.)

Polley, R. B. (1987a).
The consultant as the shaper of legend.
Consultation 6 (2): 102-118.

Polley, R. B. (1987b).
The dimensions of social interaction: A method for improving rating scales.
Social Psychology Quarterly 50 (1): 72-82.

The article is similar to Polley (1986) with suggestions for revising the content of some of the 26 value items. Subsequent research by Bales, Koenigs, and Roman (1987) indicates that the pattern that Polley observed was related to the PF wish image of the raters and does not hold for sets of raters with wish Images in other parts of the social-psychological field.

Polley, R. B. (1988a).
Group field dynamics and effective mediation.
International Journal of Small Group Research 4 (1): 55-75.

Using Polley's version of the three SYMLOG dimensions and his method of identifying polarized groups, Norwegian groups are found to be most often polarized, with German groups next, and United States groups least. For each polarized Norwegian group an hypothetical "ideal mediator" can be located on a field diagram that would have the effect of reducing the polarization.

Polley, R. B. (1988b).
Intervention and cultural context: Mediation in the United States and Norway.
Reprinted from proceedings of the Academy of Management, 1987.) J. Mana. 14 (4): 617-629.

Polley, R. B. (1989a).
Coalition, mediation, and scapegoating: General principles and cultural variation.
Int. J. Inter. 13 (2): 165-181.

Polley, R. B. (1989b).
On the dimensions of interpersonal behavior: A reply to Lustig.
Small Group Behavior 20 (2): 270-278.

Lustig (1987) had presented a study in which he claimed to find serious flaws in Bales's (1979) rating forms. Polley notes that Lustig used forms from the 1970 book that have since been revised so that his criticisms no longer apply. Polley then presents his own version of the wording of items on the behavior questionnaire, placing more emphasis on conservative and conforming behavior for Forward items and unconventional and nonconforming behavior for Backward items.

Polley, R. B. (1989c).
The oral tradition: Reflections in the spoken word.
Small Group Behavior 20 (4): 389-405.

Using Polley's definitions of the three dimensions space, images presented in stories are represented on field diagrams. Organizational stories and versions of the Lewin story concerning the origin of T Groups are analyzed.

Polley, R. B. (1991).
Group process as diagnostic: An introduction.
Small Group Research 22 (1): 92-98.

This brief introduction to group process summarizes the development of SYMLOG methodology for direct observation of groups and for rating behavior using a 26-item form. Polley then presents correlations between data from the SYMLOG value and behavior forms and his own version of the forms that use some different items, especially for the P-N and F-B dimensions. He describes his own method for identifying subgroups in relation to the average Wish and Reject image. The collection of articles in The SYMLOG practitioner (1988) is cited as a good example of the application of SYMLOG to practical problems.

Polley, R. B., & Eid, J. (1990).
Leadership training on the Bergen Fjord: A case study and evaluation.
Group & Organization Studies 15 (2): 192-211.

After working together in teams of 6 for a year, 24 Norwegian naval cadets participated in a 4-day exercise. Interpersonal ratings were collected before and after, using Polley's version of the value questionnaire. Performance data were collected in the field. The ratings predicted leader and group effectiveness, and the exercise was shown to have substantial effects on team and leadership development.

Polley, R. B., & Skinner, P. D. (1988).
Delinquency, individualism, and socialization.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 281-300. New York: Praeger.

Polley's method for determining subgroup structure and specifying the nature and severity of the polarizations within a group is illustrated with data from a case study of a group of juvenile delinquents. Individual group members have different perceptions of the polarization within the group.

Polley, R. B., & Stone, P. J. (1988).
An introduction to SYMLOG.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp.1-13. New York: Praeger.

This brief description of SYMLOG's three factors, ratings forms, Field Diagrams, Bargraphs, and the polarization overlay introduces the SYMLOG system as an aid to understanding the selections included in The SYMLOG practitioner. A more complete account of the SYMLOG field theory is provided by Bales elsewhere.

Poumadere, M. (1981).
Le SYMLOG comme nouveau paradigme de la psycho-Sociologie: Logique et contradictions.
Monographie nonpubliee, Institut SYMLOG de France, 8 rue du Moulin de Cachan, 94320 Cachan, France.

An extended introduction to SYMLOG with data and illustrations for French speaking social psychologists and practitioners.

Poumadere, M. (1983).
Image et role du formateur -- Passages d'une elaboration groupale.
Monographie nonpubliee, Institut SYMLOG de France, 8 rue du Moulin de Cachan, 94320 Cachan, France.

An account, with data, of a three­day workshop for professionals engaged in human relations training internal to organizations. SYMLOG ratings of various conceptual images as to the behavior and values desired or expected of these professionals in various aspects of their work (definition of programs, interventions, participation and direction of the activities of groups) were used as a basis for the "collective elaboration" of more concrete beliefs, attitudes, and values concerning their roles.

Poumadere, M. (1984).
Interventions SYMLOG dans les organisations.
Le Journal des Psychologues 22 (June).

Presentation of intervention formats aimed at interpersonal and intergroup levels within the organization, using individuals' value ratings of conceptual images.

Poumadere, M. (1985a).
Pratiques de securite et relations de travail dans un centre de production nucleaire.
Proceedings of the first national topical meeting of the French Association of Technicians, Engineers, and Occupational Medicine (A.F.T.I.M.), 30 rue de Conde, 75006 Paris, France.

Presentation of a general model for organizational intervention, and description of a program aimed at the improvement of security practices in a nuclear power plant. Participants indicated their perceptions and evaluations concerning three questions: what values are shown in the general attitudes within your subgroup; what values seem to underlie the rules, regulations, and procedures concerning security; and what values seem important to you in improving cooperation in work relations? Value profiles and field diagrams were used as a means of communication and feedback of the results to subgroups, meetings between subgroups, and to management as a basis for reformulating attitudes and elaborating in more concrete meaningful terms their plans for improvement and cooperation.

Poumadere, M. (1985b).
SYMLOG et les valeurs de l'organisation.
In R. Reitter & B. Ramanatsoa (Eds.), Pouvoir et Direction. Paris: McGraw-Hill.

Presentation of SYMLOG value space as it relates to the organization's multiple levels, providing data from a nuclear power plant safety practices program as an example.

Poumadere, M., & Mays, C. (1986).
Interview with Robert F. Bales.
Le Journal des Psychologues, Marseille.

Poumadere, M., & Mays, C. (1988).
SYMLOG and organizational consulting: The meaning of measurement.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 29-60. New York: Praeger.

The meaning of the SYMLOG measures for various groups during the consultation process is reported, and also the way in which feedback can be related to the performance of the group task.

Poumadere, Marc. [Ecole Normale Superieure de Cachan, Inst. Symlog, France]. (1995).
Enjeux de la communication publique des risques pour la sante et l'environnement [Issues in communication with the public on health and environmental risks].
European Review of Applied Psychology/Revue Europeenne de Psychologie Appliquee, 45(1), 7-16.

Discusses issues related to the perception and communication of environmental and health risks. Results are presented of a previously published study (M. Poumadere et al, 1994) comparing the risk perceptions and associated attitudes and control beliefs of 1,500 French Ss and 1,500 American Ss. Various logical models underlying risk communication are reviewed, and the unexpected effects of risk communication in situations of uncertainty are described and illustrated with examples from the nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. Recommendations for the development of effective risk communication strategies are provided.

Powers, J. P. (1980).
The effects of cognitive feedback: The visual representation of the Family Social Interaction Field and Individual Perceptual Field Diagrams, derived from Behavioral ratings given by family members, upon unusual perceptions among family members, locus of family conflict, solutions to family conflict, and family solidarity needs.
Unpublished pre­dissertation research project, Boston College.

Members of eight families (N=39) rated each other using the SYMLOG behavior adjectives. Four families received feedback concerning their average ratings of each other before a second administration of the adjective checklist and four families received feedback after a second administration of the checklist. Feedback given before the second rating significantly reduced the number of egocentric perceptions and perceptions became more groupcentric.

Presser, S. (1968).
Gretchen, Lilly, Carla, Suzy, Mariah, and Diane: A study of six women in a selfanalytic training group.
Unpublished Honors thesis, Harvard University.

Six women, members of university self­analytic group were observed during the first 20 meetings of the group. The alignments of each of the women with other members of the group was noted, based on agreements and disagreements. The sets of alignments were examined in terms of the three dimensional SYMLOG space. The results suggest the possibility of using these approaches for the analysis of a group member's "approach to intimacy."

Rhodes, M. A. (1986).
The SYMLOG space as a representation of the multiple level psychological field.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Department of Psychology, Harvard University.

A student population of 60 at Harvard university rated three populations of images: occupational roles, social roles, and famous persons. Each population of images was selected to be as various as possible, and to represent as well as possible, all areas and vectors of the SYMLOG space. Three rating systems were used, in the attempt to tap three different levels of the multiple level space: SYMLOG behavior descriptors, SYMLOG value descriptors, and Mehrabian's adjectives describing feelings, mood, emotions, or affects. Various factor analyses indicated that the expected three SYMLOG factors were found at all three levels. The three rating spaces were highly intercorrelated, and parallel in the way expected by the hypothesis that the SYMLOG space is essentially one multiple level space of interacting and intercorrelated aspects of interpersonal behavior. The factors of the behavior space and the value space were orthogonal, as expected, but the two Mehrabian feeling factors, "dominance" and "arousal", tended to collapse into one, oriented along the UB­DF dimension of polarization in the SYMLOG space. There was a minor fourth factor which possibly could be the fourth factor Wish and colleagues found and called "intensity", but it could not be identified clearly.

Roman, P. D. (1986).
College student perceptions of effective/ineffective teachers.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 210-218.

College students (N = 300) were asked to make SYMLOG ratings of their own candidates for the most effective and least effective teacher. There was a high degree of agreement on the UPF location for the image of the most effective teacher. There was less agreement on the location of the image of the least effective teacher. Twenty-nine percent placed the image in the UNF location, with from 8 to 12 per cent rating the image as UNB, DNF, or DNB.

Ronchi, D. (1982).
Final report of the training and consultation project, New York City Labor­Management Committee Program.
Unpublished Paper, Department of Communication, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

Contains a description of the training of facilitators for labor­management committees in the operation of the city government of New York. The SYMLOG space and field diagram were used to help facilitators identify and conceptualize more clearly the issues in particular conflicts within the labor­management discussion committees, and to infer the kinds of values and behavior that might contribute to the neutralization of conflicts through mediation.

Rupert, C. T. (1984).
Relationship criticism: A study of the possibilities and limitations of the application of Robert F. Bales's SYMLOG and Interaction Process Analysis to Scriptural criticism.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Institute of Christian Thought, University of St. Michael's College, Toronto.

Selections from the Bible, namely Psalm 48, Lamentations, John's Gospel, and the Pauline letters were analyzed using the 12 Interaction Process categories and imagery in terms of the SYMLOG space to illustrate the usefulness of such an analysis. For example, an understanding of the structure of Lamentations eliminates many otherwise untenable prejudgments. Similarly, failure to grasp the highly structured inner logic of John's Gospel is at the heart of several controversies. In Psalm 48, dissonance in imagery forced a reexamination of its punctuation and the contradictions involved in equating Sion with Sapon by traditional exegesis.

SYMLOG analysis was found useful for cataloguing genres, for the identification of an author's personality from his use of imagery, for the assignation of the New Testament letters to their authors according to their SYMLOG characteristics, and for illustrating how the personality of a critic such as Bultman or Eissfeldt may influence that critic's perception of a text. Finally, SYMLOG was used to illuminate and explain the interpersonal tensions and polarizations reported among the apostles in the New Testament in terms of their locations in SYMLOG space.

Rupert, C. T. (1988).
SYMLOG in the service of literary analysis.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 301-318. New York: Praeger.

SYMLOG theory is used for literary analysis, in this case the analysis of Scripture and its interpretation. The interaction and images in several Psalms are coded using the SYMLOG method. Field diagrams indicate the relationship of members of the Apostolic Community before, during, and after the first Ecumenical Council.

Rywick, T. (1987).
SYMLOG rating form reliability.
International Journal of Small Group Research 3 (1): 119-125.

One among a number of studies in search of a reliable short list of items that will probe the SYMLOG field as effectively as Bales's 26 items.

Sansolo, J. (1969).
Trainer style and group reaction: An analysis of trainer comments in t­groups and its relation to the learning and satisfaction of group members.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Comments of five pairs of co­leaders of five self­analytic groups of university students were categorized. In addition group members filled out SYMLOG behavior checklists for their co­leaders twice during the life of the group. Generally leaders, co­leaders, and groups were found to be similar in style. Some leaders conveyed the impression that members should "do as I say," while others gave the impression "do as I do." Most of the leaders were Upward, Positive, and Forward, as judged by the group members.

Savage, G. T. (1984).
Negotiation in small group decision­making: An ethnographic and conversational analysis of the process of dialogue in labor­management committee meetings.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University.

Uses SYMLOG and other methods to illustrate that the committee members reached a pseudo agreement which did not harmonize their interests because they did not discursively question the grounds for their agreement.

Savage, G. T. (1985).
The use of conversational analysis as an interpretive foil for participant observer research on small groups.
International Journal of Small Group Research 1 (2): 193­202.

To counter the value­laden effect of participant observation, researchers must (1) become aware of their values as participants, and (2) consciously account for these values in their theorizing. Using SYMLOG field diagrams to analyze conversations, researchers may systematically aid this reflection.

Sbandi, P., & Vogl, A. (1973).
Das dreidimensionale Gruppenmodell von R. F. Bales.
Gruppendynamik 4: 181-192.

An early introduction based on Bales's 1970 book, prior to SYMLOG proper.

Scanzoni, J. (1983).
SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups.
American Journal of Sociology 88 (4): 814­816.

A review of the 1979 SYMLOG text.

Schantz, D. (1986).
The use of SYMLOG as a diagnostic tool in drug-related problems on the job.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 219-224.

Seven cocktail waitresses and their manager completed the SYMLOG Adjective Rating Form. A suspected drug user who was frequently rated as Negative-Backward then asked for help.

Scharpf, U., & Fisch, R. (1989).
The destiny of suggestions in group decision-making proposals: A contribution on the analysis of content aspects of interaction in group decision-making.
Gruppend-Z 20 (3): 283-296.

Schneider, J. F. (1977).
Behind and in front of the one­way­mirror. An interview with Robert Freed Bales.
Arbeiten der FR Psychologie der Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken, Nr. 46.

An interview with R. F. Bales covering the following topics: Academic career, methods for the study of small groups, art and science, work with groups, and trends in group psychology.

Schneider, J. F. (1978a).
Interview mit Robert Freed Bales. Hinter und vor der Einwegscheibe
Gruppendynamik 9: 42-59.

A German version of the interview with R. F. Bales on "Behind and in front of the one-way mirror."

Schneider, J. F. (1978b).
Methoden der Interaktionsforschung.
In B. Minsel, und W. K. Roth (Hg.), Soziale Interaktion in der Schule, pp. 31-56. Muenchen: Urban und Schwarzenberg, Bd. 5.

A short introduction to methods of observing and coding social interactions in the classroom, for students in training to be teachers.

Schneider, J. F. (1979).
Systematische mehrstufige Beobachtung von Gruppen: Bericht ueber ein Beobachtungs­und Lehrkonzept von R. F. Bales.
Zusammenfassung fuer die 21. Tagung experimentell arbeitender Psychologen, Heidelberg.

The first German presentation of SYMLOG to an audience of experimentally oriented, German speaking psychologists.

Schneider, J. F. (1983).
Beobachtung von Gruppenprozessen.
In D. Frey und S. Grei, (Hg.), Sozialpsychologie. Ein Handbuch in Schluesselbegriffen, pp. 381-385. Muenchen: Urban und Schwarzenberg.

A general introduction to methods (including SYMLOG) and problems of observing group processes.

Schneider, J. F. (1984).
SYMLOG als ein Rahmenmodell zur Durchfuehrung und Evaluierung von Interventionen in Gruppen und Organisationen.
In H. J. Kurtz, A. Marcotty, und R. T. Stiefel, Neue Evaluierungskonzepte in der Management­Andragogik, pp. 221-244. Muenchen: Edition Academic.

A description of the potential usefulness of SYMLOG as a frame of reference for consultants who work with nonacademic groups and organizations.

Schneider, J. F., & Becker, U. (1985).
SYMLOG in der Gruppentherapieforschung: Einige theoretische und methodische Ueberlegungen.
In D. Czogalik, et al (Hg.), Perspektiven der Psychotherapieforschung: Einzelfall, Gruppe, Institution, pp. 279-299. Freiburg: Hochschul Verlag.

A description and demonstration of the usefulness of SYMLOG for research in psychotherapy.

Schneider, J. F., & Becker-Beck, U. (1988).
Delivery and reception of feedback in academic SYMLOG groups: A problem analysis.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 117-129. New York: Praeger.

In a description of problems faced in giving feedback to self-analytic groups of students in Germany, special attention is devoted to understanding the negative responses of group members as well as the learning obstacles encountered when instructing students to give and receive information about themselves and each other, using SYMLOG methods.

Schneider, J. F., & Orlik, P. (1982).
SYMLOG: Ein System fuer die mehrstufige Beobachtung von Gruppen.
Stuttgart: Klett­Cotta.

The German translation of Bales, Cohen, and Williamson, SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups, 1979, New York: The Free Press. In addition to the translation, contains an introductory digest of interviews with Bales not included in the English version, as well as some historical information of the beginnings of SYMLOG-based work in Germany, and first experiences by the translators with an academic self-analytic group.

Schneider, J. F., Schneider-Dueker, M. , & Becker-Beck, U. (1989).
Sex roles and social behavior: On the relation between the Bem Sex Role Inventory and the SYMLOG Behavior Rating Scales.
Journal of Social Psychology 129 (4): 471-479.

Wiggins and Holzmuller (1978, 1981) had reported that Bem's concept of androgyny was similar to interpersonal flexibility and that there was a conceptual similarity between Bem's masculinity and femininity and the dominance-submission and Positive-Negative dimensions of Leary and Bales. In this study the SYMLOG Behavior Rating Form and the Bem Sex Role Inventory scales were both administered to two samples of advanced students of psychology. With few exceptions, the results obtained do not confirm any of the hypotheses presented by Wiggens and Holzmuller.

Schneider, J. F., & Zimmer, E. (1978).
Zur faktoriellen Validitaet einer deutschen Bearbeitung des SYMLOG­adjective­rating­sheet.
Arbeiten der FR Psychologie der Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken, Nr. 59.

Self-rating and peer ratings from 62 subjects using a German version of the SYMLOG Adjective Rating Sheet were subjected to factor analyses. Factor similarity indices were calculated between the hypothetical factor loadings (Balesian Space) and the factors that emerged for the peer ratings. The adequacy of a three­factor hypothesis was confirmed only for the peer ratings. A revision of the German SYMLOG Rating Sheet is suggested.

Schneider-Duker, M. (1989).
Role as a unit of observation in psychodrama-research: For example, the development of a group.
International Journal of Small Group Research 5 (1): 119-130.

To demonstrate the use of role as a unit of observation in psychodrama and role plays, the descriptions of role enactments were coded according to the semantic SYMLOG-atlas. As example, the roles played by group members over a series of role-playing sessions indicate a process of group development from only a few roles, on one dimension of the SYMLOG space, to a multiplicity of roles covering more of the space.

Seibert, S., & Gruenfeld, L. (1992).
Masculinity, femininity, and behavior in groups.
Small Group Research 23 (1): 95-122.

Recent conceptual and methodological advances in the area of personality and group process are used to reexamine the relationship between personality and individual behavior in groups. Two self-report dispositional measures, the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, are used as predictors of interpersonal behavior as measured by SYMLOG coding of act-by act behavior. As predicted, masculinity was positively correlated with dominant behavior in the group. The relationship between femininity and friendly behavior was positive but not statistically significant.

Skardal, O., Lind, E., Gjoen, J. V., Moser, E., Smordal, T., Nyhus, S. T., & Moser, M. B. (1986).
The interactional effects of personality and gender in small groups: A missing perspective in research.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (2): 172-185.

University subjects in four-person groups, some all the same sex, and some mixed, were presented with the task of coming to a common evaluation about the merit of controversial works of art. They were observed using Bales's Interaction Process Analysis scores that were then converted to SYMLOG scores. In the homogeneous male groups, individuals who scored high on the SYMLOG U-D dimension tended to dominate most during the session. The same tendencies were not present in the all female or mixed groups.

Smitherman, H. (1979).
Group learning and personality.
College Student Journal 13 (3): 251­55.

Investigates the type of individual who works and learns most effectively in a group setting. Results indicate that people who fit into the UPF personality type perceive the group and group activities to be more effective than do other personality types.

Sniderman, R. L. (1992).
The use of SYMLOG in the evaluation of effectiveness of a management development program.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. California School of Professional Studies, Los Angeles.

Three groups of managers are compared: (1) those who took part in an executive development program with SYMLOG, (2) a control group who had some training, but no exposure to SYMLOG, and (3) a group that had no development program. SYMLOG value and behavior ratings were effective in monitoring but not effective in changing the values and behaviors of the executives.

Solomon, M. (1977).
An impressive validation of systematic multiple level observation of groups.
Unpublished paper, Psychology and Social Relations, Harvard University.

Six self-analytic groups were scored over a full term each in Bales's group psychology course, using full SYMLOG act-by-act scoring. The group members made retrospective ratings of each other near the end of the term, using various selections of 52 items from the earlier forms A, B, and C (see Bales's 1970 book). The average correlation for individual groups, dimension by dimension, between the Scoring and the Rating was .64.

Solomon, M. (1981).
Dimensions of interpersonal behavior: A convergent validation within a cognitive interactionist framework.
Journal of Personality 49: 15­26.

A cross validation of SYMLOG member ratings of each other with a standard personality test. Correlations between locations of self­analytic group members on the SYMLOG three dimensions obtained by members' ratings of each other, and their scores on the Jackson personality description form, were used to locate the Jackson scales in the SYMLOG space. Most of the scales were in the locations predicted by the theory of the space.

Stiefken, R. (1984).
Die Auswertung freier Selbst­und Fremdbeschreibungen mit Hilfe von SYMLOG und der Inhaltsanalyse nach Bromley als Alternative zu den ueblichen Verfahren der Erfassung von Selbst­und Fremdwahrnehmung.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A description of the coding of free-response descriptions of interpersonal behavior in small groups using SYMLOG interaction coding and categories developed by Bromley.

Stiles, W. B. (1980).
Comparison of dimensions derived from rating versus coding of dialogue.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38 (3): 359­374.

Forty­one university students rated transcripts of discussions of 20 two-person groups on 12 seven point adjective scales. A factor analysis using multidimensional scales gave four dimensions: dominance, riendliness, elf­centeredness, and task orientation. Scores based on these dimensions were compared with scores based on act­by­act coding of the same dialogues using Stiles's taxonomy of verbal response modes and SYMLOG scores. Correlations between the three sets of dimensions ranged from moderate to negligible. The fact that the coding was based on transcripts of very short samples of behavior may have influenced the results.

Stockton, R. (1981).
SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups.
Psychiatry 44 (2): 184­186.

A review of the 1979 SYMLOG text.

Stone, P. J. (1988).
SYMLOG for skeptics.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 15-26. New York: Praeger.

An example of consultation with a group of managers of a university student organization is used as an occasion to answer some of the questions about SYMLOG that might be posed by skeptics. The activities of the student organization ranged from publishing books to a variety of local services.

Stout, S. A. (1979).
A study of the structure of health values.
Unpublished Doctor of Public Health dissertation, Department of Health Administration, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

A questionnaire including value statements about health designed to reflect the SYMLOG three dimensional space was given to 286 persons (personnel from state and local health departments, social activists, first-year medical students, nursing students, and Christian Scientists). Only the Upward­Downward and Positive­Negative dimensions emerged clearly from factor analyses of the data.

Strodtbeck, F. L. (1984).
Difficult decisions behind the originality of SYMLOG.
Social Psychology Quarterly 47 (1): 95­98.

Includes some observations on the departures of Bales's style of work and research from the mainstream, and the academic climate in which he worked.

Struchholz, H. (1979).
Die SYMLOG­Konzeption von Bales am Beispieleiner akademischen Selbstanalyse­Gruppe. Eine Fallstudie.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A detailed description of one of the first SYMLOG groups conducted in Saarbrucken.

Sucato, V. S. (1976).
Short-term and long­term service: An Interaction Process Analysis.
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Rutgers University.

Verbatim recordings of 87 interviews with social work clients who were involved in either short- or long-term service were analyzed using the 12 Interaction Process categories and the three dimensional SYMLOG space. As anticipated, short-term service interviews involved more problem solving that reached closure, a higher ratio of positive to negative reactions, and more assertiveness, sociability, and task­orientation. In general the social worker was more Upward, Positive, and Forward, and the client was more Downward, Negative, and Backward.

Slonim Nevo, V.; Chaitin, J.; Sharaga, Y.; & Abdelgani, A. [Ben Gurion Univ. Negev, Dept. Social Work, POB 653, IL-84105 Beer Sheva, Israel; Ben Gurion Univ. Negev, Dept. Behav. Sci., IL-84105 Beer Sheva, Israel]. (1998).
Value patterns and content among families of soviet immigrants: SYMLOG analysis.
Family Process, 37(3), 345-361

The purpose of this qualitative study is to understand and compare two immigrant families whose children perceived their families to be well-functioning, and two families whose children perceived them to be poor-functioning The method of analysis used for studying the values of the families is based on SYMLOG. Four families, who immigrated to Israel during the early seventies from the former USSR, and whose adolescents were born in Israel, were interviewed. The results show that in the two "well-functioning" families, there is a high degree of consensus on, their values—those that they accept, as well as, those that they reject. The two "poor-functioning" families did not exhibit identical value patterns—neither in the values that they favor nor in, those that they reject. In terms he well-functioning families, there was a strong expression of two values: friendliness and the desirability of self-sacrifice in order to reach family goals. In, contrast, in the poor-functioning families, the value of conservatism was salient. Finally, all four families expressed strong opposition to the values of strong individualism and nonconformity. Suggestions for family intervention are offered.

Sturm, G. [Fakultat Soziologie Univ. Bielefeld, D-48001, Federal Republic Germany]. (1990).
MDS and SYMLOG Structures of Self-Reported Interaction Networks Obtained by Rep-Grid Tests in a Panel Study of Women Having Their First Child.
Paper given at the meeting of the International Sociological Association (ISA). 1990.

Data drawn from a larger longitudinal study investigating attitude changes related to the birth of a child are used to isolate the cases of 13 women in order to examine the individual structures of attitudes toward 12 interaction partners including the self; these social networks were assessed at 5 points of time. Here, focus is on the methodological issues of (1) how to present structures generated by personal constructs—i.e., on one hand regarding individuals & on the other hand regarding the group or average; & (2) the comparison of time-of-measurement structures. Two possible methods of analysis are discussed: the more traditional one is the representation of the interaction partners by MDS using similarity configurations; the alternative method is a representation within R. F. Bales's three-dimensional semantic SYMLOG-space that finds codes for the constructs. Both methods make it possible to give an interpretive picture of attitude structures as long as it is limited on ideographic analysis. However, each of these methods produces different results about the change of the women's reported social networks. The differences are related to the choice of a relational or positional analysis of structures, i.e., of a more numerical or semantic comparison of the chosen constructs. Thus, both can only represent some facets of social reality. Despite these methodological problems, it can be concluded that the networks described by the women change after the birth of the first child, following a process that reaches its strongest effect over time. These changes vary according to individual circumstance, & women regard the changes concerning themselves as the most significant.

Sundstrom, E.; & Busby, P. L. [Univ. Tennessee, USA]. (1997).
Coworkers' perceptions of eight MBTI leader types: Comparative analysis of managers' SYMLOG profiles.
In C. Fitzgerald, L. K. Kirby, et al. (Eds.). Developing leaders: Research and applications in psychological type and leadership development: Integrating reality and vision, mind and heart (pp. 225-265). Palo Alto, CA, USA: Davies-Black Publishing.

Uses an established measurement system for assessing leader effectiveness, called SYMLOG [Systematic Multiple-Level Observation of Groups], to analyze differences in coworkers' perceptions of leaders [529 people: vice presidents, directors, and managers] in 8 MBTI [Myers-Briggs Type Indicator] classifications / describe a study of the leaders of a single manufacturing organization, each of whom had coworkers rate the teamwork values he or she demonstrated at work / compare the resulting SYMLOG profiles of coworkers' perceptions against the empirically derived Most Effective Profile for leadership effectiveness and analyze the differences by MBTI type.

Swann, H., & Polley, R. B. (1985).
On forming impressions from observed behavior: Two postulates and five parameters.
International Journal of Small Group Behavior 1 (2): 206­214.

Formulas to be used with SYMLOG retrospective ratings can provide a characterization of the particular attitudes and biases that a participant in a group brings to his or her impression formation.

Swensen, C. H. (1981).
SYMLOG: A system for the multiple level observation of groups.
Journal of Personality Assessment 45 (1): 99­100.

A review of the 1979 SYMLOG text.

Tepp, G. A. (1992).
Interactional effects resulting from new member entry into existing groups.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Graduate Faculty of the School of Human Behavior, United States International University, San Diego.

The interactional effects of new membership on existing groups was explored in an effort to specify how the values for teamwork of the new member affect intact group behavior. SYMLOG values questionnaires were used as pre- and post-test measures, with team members repeating their self and coworker ratings two months after the joining of the new member. Prior to joining, the new member also made SYMLOG ratings and was tested with the FIRO-B instrument. New members were found to have a significant affect on group behavior as indicated by some of the 26 SYMLOG value dimensions.

Tootell, G., Mason, L., Taraldson, J., M. Barnhill, M., & Prather, P. (1986).
The independence of norms in small groups.
International Journal of Small Group Research 2 (1): 43­59.

Evidence collected by SYMLOG observations and questionnaires indicates that some types of norms can form in small groups before the development of other social controls. Earlier studies suggested that this applies for authority relations, status differences, friendship, or informal hierarchies of liking or leadership. Parallel findings are reported for cliques of members who like each other and for attribution of leadership.

Tressemer, D. (1974).
Observing social interaction: Methodological models.
Paper presented at meetings of American Psychological Association, New Orleans.

Several observation methods are described in terms of the setting (laboratory or field), output (form of data), content of interaction (cognitive­verbal, emotional, or motoric), and scope (detailed description or enlarged interpretation). The SYMLOG system is described as an integration of many levels of the content and scope dimensions.

Tschuschke, V. (1988).
Interaction behavior of borderline patients in analytic group therapy.
In R. B. Polley, A. P. Hare, & P. J. Stone (Eds.), The SYMLOG practitioner, pp. 261-268. New York: Praeger.

The application of the SYMLOG method is recommended in the investigation of interactive processes in analytic group therapy. Therapists are able to differentiate the progress during therapy of patients with borderline syndromes from those who are hysterical.

Tschuschke, V. (1989).
Therapeutic effectiveness and outcome in group-psychotherapy.
Gruppen Psych. 25 (1): 60-78.

Vanneman, R. D. (1974).
Industrial organization during development: A personality and social structure approach.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

Analysis was based on case histories of 10 industries in the United States and a cross­sectional survey of 24 medium sized industries in western India. Descriptions of the behavior of six top managers in each of the Indian firms were analyzed in terms of the three dimensional SYMLOG space. There were consistent differences among ratings of five roles: General manager: Positive­Forward; Works manager: Negative­Forward; Sales manager: Upward­Backward; Personnel manager: Downward; and Founder: Upward­Negative and more Backward than other corporate heads who were not founders.

Van Velsor, E.; & Fleenor, J. W. [Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC, USA]. (1997).
The MBTI and leadership skills: Relationships between the MBTI and four 360-degree management feedback instruments.
In Catherine Fitzgerald, Linda K. Kirby, et al. (Eds.). Developing leaders: Research and applications in psychological type and leadership development: Integrating reality and vision, mind and heart (pp. 225-265). Palo Alto, CA, USA: Davies-Black Publishing.

Describes the methods and focus of 5 studies on the MBTI [Myers-Briggs Type Indicator] and leadership effectiveness the 5 studies focus on 4 [360-degree feedback instruments: the Management Skills Profile, System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG), the Survey of Management Practices, and Benchmarks] / looks at the relationship between MBTI scores and ratings of leadership skill, covering 3 areas: (a) skills related to Sensing, Thinking, and Judging vs. those related to Intuition, Feeling, and Perceiving; (b) how managers with different MBTI preferences are seen by [coworkers]; (c) self vs. rater differences on leadership and MBTI preferences / compares the results of studies that relate the [Type Differentiation Indicator] subscales to leadership skills / focuses on type and rated leadership effectiveness / use of these instruments in leadership development are addressed.

Vogelgesang, O. (1977).
Die psychologischen Typen C. G. Jungs und die Gruppenrollen von R. F. Bales. Ein theoretischer und praktischer Vergleich.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken.

A comparison of the types of C. G. Jung with the group roles given by R. F. Bales.

Voss, P. (1984).
SYMLOG: A System for multilevel group observation.
Zeitschrift fur Psychologie 192 (2): 201­203.

A review of the SYMLOG text.

Waagen, C. L. (1982).
The development of group identity through language use.
Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University.

Groups were recorded, interviewed, and given SYMLOG questionnaires. The intent of the study was to demonstrate the feasibility of evaluating a group's language use as a measure of group cohesiveness and group identity.

Whaley, G. L. (1987).
SYMLOG: A microcomputer-based management development tool.
Northern California Executive Review (Fall): 6-13.

Whaley, G. L. (1989).
SYMLOG field diagram of contemporary well-know personalities.
International Journal of Small Group Research 5 (2): 211-220.

To produce a contemporary version of the SYMLOG field diagram of images of sixteen well-know personalities (Isenberg & Ennis, 1981), university students were asked to rate the values shown in the behavior of a list of 72 persons that included males, females and minorities. From this set 36 images were selected that represent persons in all four quadrants of the field diagram. The field diagram can be used to introduce the SYMLOG method and theory.

Wiener, V., & Fogelman, E. (1982).
Conflict management in the family: A SYMLOG analysis of upwardly mobile, lower­class, urban families.
Unpublished paper, Department of Psychology, CUNY, New York.

Uses Individual Field Diagrams to develop a typology of structures of family conflict: conflict diffusion, conflict resolution, conflict management, conflict avoidance.

Williamson, S. A. (1977).
Developmental patterns in self­analytic groups.
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Harvard University.

Five self­analytic groups of university students were observed using the SYMLOG scoring method. In the course of a group's development discrete sub­periods could be recognized, signaled by dramatic shifts across quadrants in the social­psychological space. Polarization and unification tendencies were prominent in every session, however they became less chronic over time and were interspersed with periods of cohesion. Every polarization and unification tended to have its leaders. Six phases of group development were associated with behavior in different parts of the SYMLOG space: 1. getting acquainted, 2. initial withdrawal and dependence, 3. conflict and confrontation, 4. unifying for the task, 5. critical feedback and analysis, and 6. termination.

Wiswell, A. K., & Lawrence, H. V. (1992).
The effects of training in feedback on managers' perceived effectiveness of their work groups.
Paper presented at HRD Professor's Network Conference.

An experimental field study, with treatment and control groups, was conducted in a large municipal government to address manager-subordinate feedback to determine the effects of training in feedback (1) on managers' perceived effectiveness of their work groups, (2) their least effective subordinate, and (3) their own management behavior. SYMLOG questionnaires were used to measure how close a leader's or group's values are to the SYMLOG norms for teamwork effectiveness. A statistically significant difference was found between treatment and control groups, with movement of the treatment group managers' perception of greater effectiveness on the Dominance and Friendliness dimensions. The movement showing the treatment group managers' post-training assessment of their work groups toward SYMLOG's normative Most Effective profile for Dominance and Friendliness supports the validity of the instrument as well as the effectiveness of the feedback training.

Witmer, N. T., Pond III, S. B., &. Love, C. T. (1984).
Small group process: Comparison of memory ratings with observational scoring.
Group and Organization Studies 9 (2): 221­240.

Four observers, using SYMLOG methods of scoring and rating, coded videotapes of four groups involved in marital counseling in a prison. Each group consisted of an incarcerated husband, his wife, and a psychiatrist. Correlations and perceptual mapping were used as indicators of convergence between scored and rated behavior. Some convergence was indicated by correlations that ranged from .62 to .86, depending upon the group and the way the data were aggregated.

Wunder, K. (1985a).
Ratings und Interaktionssignierung im SYMLOG­Ansatz. Ein Methodenvergleich im Hinblick auf Konsistenz, Sensitivitaet und Validitaet.
Diplomarbeit, FR Psychologie, Universitaet Konstanz.

A detailed study of reliability, sensitivity, convergent and discriminant validity of three modes of SYMLOG measurement: scoring of behavior, ratings of behavior using a 26 item form, and ratings of behavior using a short 12-item form developed by P. Orlik. Raw data were in the form of videotapes of three psychodrama training groups through four sessions each, each session consisting of a warm-up, a role play, and a feedback and sharing period. An external observer (the author) and the director of the psychodrama did the scoring and rating. The scoring produced the highest reliabilities (very high correlations in the .80's and .90's between the two observers) and also the highest sensitivity to differences between sessions. The 12-item and the 26-item forms both produced correlations ranging from around .70 to around .80, but neither was consistently more reliable than the other. Paradoxically, however, the convergence of neither of the two rating methods with the scoring method was impressive (correlations ranging around .40 to .50 for UD and PN, and around zero for FB.). The reasons for the low convergence were not evident. It was concluded that the different methods were complementary and not equivalent. The author finds evidence of a "sequence effect."

Wunder, K. (1985b).
SYMLOG and exchange theory.
Unpublished course paper, Department of Psychology, SUNY Buffalo, New York.

A comparison of the two theories and consideration of the ways in which they supplement each other. Suggestions for integrating the two in terms of actual measurement operations are given.

Wunder, K. (1987).
A comparison between ratings and scorings in the SYMLOG approach.
International Journal of Small Group Research 3 (1): 126-138.

One among a number of studies in search of a reliable short list of items that will probe the SYMLOG field as effectively as Bales's 26 items.

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